FDTP- Circuit Analysis

EC-8251
02-12-2017
Self inductance
&
Mutual Inductance
 Joseph Henry
• 1797 – 1878
• American physicist
• First director of the Smithsonian
• Improved design of electromagnet
• Constructed one of the first motors
• Discovered self-inductance
• Unit of inductance is named in his honor
Inductance and Magnetic Fields
• Introduction
• Electromagnetism
• Reluctance
• Inductance
• Self-inductance
• Inductors
• Inductors in Series and Parallel
• Voltage and Current
• Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents
• Energy Storage in an Inductor
• Mutual Inductance
• Transformers
• Circuit Symbols
• The Use of Inductance in Sensors
 Introduction

• Earlier we noted that capacitors store energy

by producing an electric field within a piece of
dielectric material
• Inductors also store energy, in this case it is
stored within a magnetic field
• In order to understand inductors, and related
components such as transformers, we need
first to look at electromagnetism
 Electromagnetism
• A wire carrying a
current I causes a
magnetomotive
force (m.m.f) F
– this produces a
magnetic field
– F has units of
Amperes
– for a single wire F
is equal to I
• The magnitude of the field is defined by the
magnetic field strength, H , where

HI
l
where l is the length of the magnetic circuit
• Example –
A straight wire carries a current of 5 A. What is the magnetic field
strength H at a distance of 100mm from the wire?
Magnetic circuit is circular. r = 100mm, so path = 2r = 0.628m

I 5
H   7.96 A /m
l 0.628
• The magnetic field produces a magnetic flux, 
– flux has units of weber (Wb)
• Strength of the flux at a particular location is
measured in term of the magnetic flux density, B
– flux density has units of tesla (T) (equivalent to 1
Wb/m2)
• Flux density at a point is determined by the field
strength and the material present
or B  μ0 μ r H
B  μH
where  is the permeability of the material, r is the relative permeability
and 0 is the permeability of free space
• Adding a ferromagnetic ring around a wire will
increase the flux by several orders of
magnitude
– since r for ferromagnetic materials is 1000 or
more
• When a current-carrying
wire is formed into a coil
the magnetic field is
concentrated
• For a coil of N turns the
m.m.f. (F) is given by
F  IN

and the field strength is

H  IN
l
• The magnetic flux produced is determined by
the permeability of the material present
– a ferromagnetic material will increase the flux
density
 Reluctance
• In a resistive circuit, the resistance is a measure of
how the circuit opposes the flow of electricity
• In a magnetic circuit, the reluctance, S is a
measure of how the circuit opposes the flow of
magnetic flux
• In a resistive circuit R = V/I
• In a magnetic circuit
SF
Φ
– the units of reluctance are amperes per weber (A/ Wb)
 Inductance

• A changing magnetic flux induces an e.m.f. in

any conductor within it
• Faraday’s law:
The magnitude of the e.m.f. induced in a circuit is
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux
linking the circuit
• Lenz’s law:
The direction of the e.m.f. is such that it tends to
produce a current that opposes the change of flux
responsible for inducing the e.m.f.
• When a circuit forms a single loop, the e.m.f.
induced is given by the rate of change of the flux
• When a circuit contains many loops the resulting
e.m.f. is the sum of those produced by each loop
• Therefore, if a coil contains N loops, the induced
voltage V is given by
V N d Φ
dt
where d/dt is the rate of change of flux in Wb/s
• This property, whereby an e.m.f. is induced as a
result of changes in magnetic flux, is known as
inductance
 Inductors

• The inductance of a coil depends on its

dimensions and the materials around which it
is formed

μ0 AN 2
L
l
• The inductance is greatly increased through
the use of a ferromagnetic core, for example

μ0μr AN 2
L
l
• Equivalent circuit of an inductor

• All real circuits also possess stray capacitance

 Inductors in Series and Parallel
• When several inductors are connected
together their effective inductance can be
calculated in the same way as for resistors –
provided that they are not linked magnetically
• Inductors in Series
 Equivalent Inductance - Parallel
• Inductors in Parallel
 Voltage and Current
• Consider the circuit shown here
– inductor is initially un-energised
• current through it will be zero
– switch is closed at t = 0
– I is initially zero
• hence VR is initially 0
• hence VL is initially V
– as the inductor is energised:
• I increases
• VR increases
• hence VL decreases
• we have exponential behaviour
• Time constant
– we noted earlier that in a capacitor-resistor circuit
the time required to charge to a particular voltage
is determined by the time constant CR
– in this inductor-resistor circuit the time taken for
the current to rise to a certain value is determined
by L/R
– this value is again the time constant τ (greek tau)
 Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents
• Consider the application of a
sinusoidal current to an inductor
– from above V = L dI/dt
– voltage is directly proportional to
the differential of the current
– the differential of a sine wave is
a cosine wave
– the voltage is phase-shifted by
90 with respect to the current
– the phase-shift is in the opposite
direction to that in a capacitor
 Energy Storage in an Inductor
• Can be calculated in a similar manner to the
energy stored in a capacitor
• In a small amount of time dt the energy added
to the magnetic field is the product of the
instantaneous voltage, the instantaneous
current and the time di
Energy added  vi dt  L idt  Li di
dt

• Thus, when the current is increased from zero

to I E  L idt  1 LI 2
I
0
2
Circuit Symbols
 The Use of Inductance in Sensors

• Inductive proximity
sensors
– basically a coil
wrapped around a ferromagnetic rod
– a ferromagnetic plate coming close to the coil
changes its inductance allowing it to be sensed
– can be used as a linear sensor or as a binary switch
– Linear variable differential transformers (LVDTs)
 Key Points
• Inductors store energy within a magnetic field
• A wire carrying a current creates a magnetic field
• A changing magnetic field induces an electrical voltage in any
conductor within the field
• The induced voltage is proportional to the rate of change of the
current
• Inductors can be made by coiling wire in air, but greater
inductance is produced if ferromagnetic materials are used
• The energy stored in an inductor is equal to ½LI2
• When a transformer is used with alternating signals, the voltage
gain is equal to the turns ratio
 Self-inductance
• A changing current in a wire causes a changing
magnetic field about it
• A changing magnetic field induces an e.m.f. in
conductors within that field
• Therefore when the current in a coil changes, it
induces an e.m.f. in the coil
• This process is known as self-inductance

V  L dI
dt
where L is the inductance of the coil (unit is the Henry)
 Self Inductance
• The concept of inductance applies also to a single isolated coil
of N turns

• When a changing current passes through a coil (solenoid), a

changing magnetic flux is produced in the coil. This in turn,
induces an EMF in the same coil.

• This EMF opposes the change in flux (Lenz’s Law)

 Self Inductance
• The magnetic flux ΦB passing through N-turns of the coil is
proportional to the current I inn the coil. This proportionality
is now called self inductance
B  L  I
B
LN B dI
I  L
dt dt
• The induced EMF E, due to the self-inductance of the coil is
(from Faraday’s Law):
d B dI
  N  L
dt dt
• Self Inductance is also measured in Henrys
A
Since   B  A   0 NI
l
A
then L   0 N
2

l
 Inductance
• The inductance, L, is dependent on the geometry and the
presence of a core made out of ferro-magnetic material

• The symbol for inductance is:

• Every electronic component, such as a resistor, or a wire, has

some amount of inductance called “parasitic inductance”,
which is usually unwanted.
 Inductive Reactance
• Large inductance tends to oppose alternating current. The
greater the inductance, the less AC current that can pass (ie: it
impedes the flow of AC current similar to how resistance
impedes the flow of DC current)

• The opposition to AC current is called inductive reactance

(XL)

• The term impedance is used to represent the vector

magnitude of resistance and inductive reactance

Z  R 2  X L2
 Mutual Inductance
• If 2 coils are placed near
each other (in the same plane),
a changing current in one coil will induce an EMF in the other
coil

• From Faraday’s law, the EMF E2 induced in coil 2, is

proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux
passing through it
 Mutual Inductance
• Let  B2 ,1- be the magnetic flux in each loop of coil 2, created
by the current in coil 1. If coil 2 contains N2 turns, the
N 2 B is the total flux in coil 2
2 ,1

the Mutual Inductance

N 2  B2 ,1 from Faraday’s Law

Define M 2,1 
I1

d B2 ,1 I1 d B2 ,1 M 2,1 dI1
But  2   N 2  B2 ,1  M 2,1 and 
dt N2 dt N 2 dt
M 2.1 dI1 dI1
 2   N2   M 2,1
N 2 dt dt

• This relates the change in current in coil 1 to the EMF induced

in coil 2
 Mutual Inductance
• The mutual inductance of coil 2 with respect to coil 1 is a
constant and depends upon the geometry of the two coils
• The reverse situation can also take place when a change in
current in coil 2 induces an EMF into coil 1
• The mutual inductances M1,2 = M2,1 so that
dI 2
1   M 1, 2
dt
the SI Units for mutual inductance is the Henry (H)
1H = 1V·s/A = 1Ω·s
dI 2
1   M
dt
dI
 2  M 1
dt
 Mutual Inductance
• When two coils are linked magnetically then a
changing current in one will produce a changing
magnetic field which will induce a voltage in the
other – this is mutual inductance
• When a current I1 in one circuit, induces a voltage
V2 in another circuit, then
dI
V M 1
2 dt
where M is the mutual inductance between the circuits. The unit of mutual
inductance is the Henry (as for self-inductance)
 Coupled Circuits
• The coupling between the coils can be
increased by wrapping the two coils around a
core
– the fraction of the magnetic field that is coupled is
referred to as the coupling coefficient
• Coupling is particularly important in
transformers
– the arrangements below give a coupling
coefficient that is very close to 1
 Transformers
• Most transformers approximate to ideal
components
– that is, they have a coupling coefficient  1
– for such a device, when unloaded, their behaviour
is determined by the turns ratio
– for alternating voltages

V N
2 2
V N
1 1
• When used with a resistive load, current flows
in the secondary
– this current itself produces a magnetic flux which
opposes that produced by the primary
– thus, current in the secondary reduces
the output voltage
– for an ideal transformer

V1 I1  V2 I2
 Mutual Inductance

• Consider two circuits “linked” by a magnetic

field (magnetically-coupled coils).
“Self-Inductances” are L1 and L2.
The “Mutual” Inductance is M.
The voltage induced in one circuit is related to the
time-varying current in the other circuit.
 Analysis

• Easiest with mesh-current method.

 Write the circuit equations in terms of the coil
currents.

Arbitrarily assign the current directions.

There will be two voltages across each coil, the “self-
induced” voltage, L(di/dt), and a “mutually induced”
voltage, M(di/dt).
 Determination of Voltage Polarities

• “Dot convention”
– Dots indicate the direction in which the coils are
wound.
 The Rule for using the Dot Convention

• When the reference direction for a current

enters the dotted terminal of a coil, the
reference polarity of the voltage that it
induces in the other coil is positive at its
dotted terminal.
 Alternate Rule for the Dot Convention

• When the reference direction for a current

leaves the dotted terminal of a coil, the
reference polarity of the voltage that it
induces in the other coil is negative at its
dotted terminal.
 For this Example

• The voltage induced in coil 1 by the current in coil 2

is negative at the dotted terminal of coil 1, and is a
voltage rise with respect to current i1.
 For this Example

• The voltage induced in coil 2 by the current in coil 1

is positive at the dotted terminal of coil 2, and is a
voltage rise with respect to current i2.
 Write the Mesh Equations

di di
v  i R  L
g 1 1
M 0
1
1 2

dt dt
di di
iR L
2 2
M
2
0
2 1

dt dt
 Example

• Write a set of mesh equations that describe

the circuit shown in terms of i1 and i2.
 di di di
4  20i  5i  8  20i  8
1
1 1
2
 5i  0
2
g

g
dt dt dt
di di di
16  20i  60i  20i  8  16
2
2 2 1
0 1 g

dt dt dt
 di d
4  8 i  i   20 i  i   5 i  i   0
1
g 2 1 2 1 g
dt dt
d di
20 i  i   60i  16 i  i   8
2 1 2 2
0
g
1

dt dt
Numerical Example
You have a 100 turn coil with radius 5 cm with a resistance of 10 . At
what rate must a perpendicular B field change to produce a current of
4 A in the coil?

Emf = IR = (4A)(10) = 40 Volts

dm dB 2 dB
Emf  N  NA  Nr  40
dt dt dt Because coils have
dB 40 40 resistance of 10 ,
   51 T induced current has
dt Nr 2 100  3.15  (.05) 2 s
a voltage drop so
that emf = IR =
B(t) N = 100 turns
N R = 5 cm
d m
Coil resistance = 10  N
dt
d m
N coils so emf   N
dt
Multiply by N
 RL Circuits
VR  Ri

Close the switch to a.


VL What happens? Write
down the loop rule.


Loop Rule: Sum of potentials =0 The potential can be defined across
the inductor outside the region where
  VR  VL  0 the magnetic flux is changing.

di
  iR  L  0 Solve this equation for the current i.
dt
  
Rt

Rt
i (1 e L
) VR  0.63 VR   (1  e L
)
R

VR  Ri 
RRi
   L
R
R
L

2000 
4.0H
 
Rt
10 V VL  e L

VL  (e1 )  0.37
di
L
Note = L/R = 4/2000 = 0.002 s,

 dt
 
i (1 e1)  0.63
R R
and
VR  (1 e1 )  0.63
 How is the magnetic energy stored in a solenoid or coil
in our circuit?

di
  iR  L  0 Start with Loop rule or
dt Kirchoff’s Law I

di Solve it for 
  iR  L
dt

di Multiply by i
i  i R  Li
2

dt

Rate at which energy
Rate at which energy Rate at which energy is
is delivered to circuit
is lost in resistor stored in the magnetic field
from the battery
 of the coil
dU B di
 Li
dt dt
 What is the magnetic energy stored in a solenoid or coil

i i
dU B di
  Lidi 
UB
 Li dUB  Lidi 0
dU B  UB  Lidi  1
2 Li 2

dt dt 0 0

UB  12 Li
2
For an inductor L Now define the energy per unit volume
 
U
uB  B
Al
Li 2 L i 2
1 L
 uB  2
  0 n 2 A
Al l 2A l
 Li 2 1 B  0ni
1
Area A
l uB  2
 2  0 n 2i 2
Al
 
2
The energy density formula is B E2
uB  uE 
valid in general
 20  20