Ch16 Lecture 3e

Ch 16
Marine and Coastal

Systems: Resources,
Impacts, and Conservation
Part 2: Environmental Issues
the Search for Solutions
PowerPoint Slides prepared by
Jay Withgott and Heidi Marcum
Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
This lecture will help you understand:
The marine environment

Major marine ecosystems
Human uses of marine
resources
Human impacts on the
marine environment
The state of ocean
fisheries
Marine protected areas
and reserves

Central Case: collapse of the cod fisheries
No fish has more impact on human

civilization than the Atlantic cod
Eastern Canadians and U.S. fishermen
have fished for cod for centuries
Large ships and technology have
destroyed the cod fishery
Even protected stocks are not
recovering
- Prey may now be competing with,
and eating, young cod

Cod are groundfish
They live or feed along the bottom

- Halibut, pollock, flounder
Cod eat small fish and invertebrates
They grow to 60-70 cm long and
can live 20 years
Inhabit cool waters on both sides of
the Atlantic
There are 24 stocks (populations) of
cod

Oceans cover most of the Earths surface
The oceans influence global climate, team with
biodiversity, facilitate transportation and commerce,
and provide resources for us
They cover 71% of Earths surface and contain 97%
of Earths surface water
Oceans influence the atmosphere, lithosphere, and
biosphere

The oceans contain more than water
Ocean water is 96.5% water

- Plus, ions of dissolved salts
Evaporation removes pure
water and leaves a higher
concentration of salt
Nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus)
Dissolved gas
- Oxygen is added by plants,
bacteria, and atmospheric
diffusion

Ocean water is vertically structured
Temperature declines with depth
Heavier (colder saltier) water sinks
- Light (warmer and less salty) water remains near
the surface
Temperatures are more stable than land
temperatures
- Waters high heat capacity
- It takes much more heat to warm water than air
Oceans regulate the earths climate
- They absorb and release heat
- Oceans surface circulation
The ocean has several layers
Surface zone
- Warmed by sunlight and stirred by
wind
- Consistent water density
Pycnocline = below the surface zone
- Density increases rapidly with
depth
Deep Zone = below the pycnocline
- Dense, sluggish water
- Unaffected by winds, storms,
sunlight, and temperature
Ocean water flows horizontally in currents
Currents = the ocean is composed of vast riverlike

flows
- Driven by density differences, heating and cooling,
gravity, and wind
- Influence global climate and El Nio and La Nia
- Transport heat, nutrients, pollution, and the larvae of
many marine species
Some currents such as the Gulf Stream are rapid and
powerful
- The warm water moderates Europes climate

The upper waters of the oceans flow in
currents

Surface winds and heating create vertical
currents
Upwelling = the vertical flow of cold, deep water towards the
surface
- High primary productivity and lucrative fisheries
- Also occurs where strong winds blow away from, or
parallel to, coastlines
Downwellings = oxygen-rich water sinks where surface currents
come together

Seafloor topography can be rugged and
complex
The seafloor consists of
- Underwater volcanoes
- Steep canyons
- Mountain range
- The planets longest
range is under water
- Mounds of debris
- Trenches
- Some flat areas

Understanding underwater geography
Maps show
- Bathymetry = the measurement of ocean depths
- Topography = the physical geography or the shape
and arrangement of landforms
Continental shelves = gently sloping areas that underlie
the shallow waters bordering continents
Shelf-slope break = sudden drop off of the continental
shelf
Continental slope = connects the continental shelf to the
ocean floor

A stylized bathymetric profile of the ocean

Regions of ocean differ greatly
Some zones support more life than others

Photic zone = well-lighted top layer that supports high
primary productivity
Pelagic = habitats and ecosystems occurring between the
oceans surface and floor
Benthic = habitats and ecosystems occurring on the
ocean floor

Open ocean systems vary in biodiversity
Microscopic phytoplankton
constitute the base of the marine
food chain in the pelagic zone
- Algae, protists, and
cyanobacteria
These organisms feed
zooplankton
- Which then feeds fish,
jellyfish, whales, etc.
Predators at higher trophic levels
include larger fish, sea turtles,
sharks, and fish-eating birds

Animals of the deep ocean
Animals adapt to extreme water
pressure and the absence of light
- Scavenge carcasses or organic
detritus
- Some are predators, while
others have mutualistic
relationships with bacteria
- Some species carry bacteria
that produce light chemically
by bioluminescence
http://www.youtube.c Hydrothermal vents support
om/watch?v=D69hGv tubeworms, shrimp, and other
chemosynthetic species
CsWgA

Kelp forests harbor many organisms
Kelp = large, dense, brown algae growing from the floor of
continental shelves
Dense strands form kelp forests along temperate coasts
Shelter and food for organisms
Absorbs wave energy and protects shorelines from erosion
Eaten by people
Alginates serve as thickeners in cosmetics, paints, paper, and
soaps

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GcbU4bfkDA4

Coral reefs are treasure troves of
biodiversity
Located in shallow subtropical and tropical waters
Corals = tiny colonial marine organisms
- Related to sea anemones and jellyfish
- Remain attached to rock or existing reef and
capture passing food with stinging tentacles
- Derive nourishment from symbiotic algae,
zooxanthallae

Coral reefs consist of millions of corals
http://www.yo
utube.com/wat
ch?v=5d3qie3
jbHk
Coral reef = a mass of calcium carbonate composed of the

skeletons of corals
- Consists of millions of densely packed individuals
- Protect shorelines by absorbing waves
- Innumerable invertebrates and fish species find food and
shelter in reef nooks and crannies

Coral reefs are in worldwide decline
Coral bleaching = occurs when zooxanthellae leave the coral
- Coral lose their color and die, leaving white patches
- From climate change, pollution, or unknown natural causes
Nutrient pollution causes algal growth, which covers coral
Divers damage reefs by using cyanide to capture fish
Acidification of oceans deprives corals of necessary carbonate
ions for their structural parts

Deepwater coral reefs exist
They thrive in waters outside the tropics

- On ocean floor at depths of 200-500 m (650-1650 ft)
Occur in cold-water areas
Little is known about these reefs
Already, many have been badly damaged by trawling
- Some reefs are now being protected

Intertidal zones undergo constant change
Intertidal (littoral) ecosystems = where the ocean

meets the land
- between the uppermost reach of the high tide and the
lowest limit of the low tide
Tides = periodic rising and falling of the oceans height
due to the gravitational pull of the sun and moon
- Intertidal organisms spend part of their time
submerged in water and part of their time exposed to
sun and wind

A typical intertidal zone

Intertidal zones are a tough place to live
But they have remarkable

diversity
- Rocky shorelines, crevices,
pools of water (tide pools)
- Anemones, mussels, barnacles,
urchins, sea slugs, starfish, and
crabs
Temperature, salinity, and
moisture change dramatically
from high to low tide
- Sandy intertidal zones have
slightly less biodiversity
Salt marshes occur widely
Salt marsh = occur along coasts at temperate latitude

- Tides wash over gently sloping, sandy, silty
substrates
- High primary productivity
- Critical habitat for birds and commercial fish and
shellfish species
- Filter pollution
- Stabilize shorelines against storm surges

People have changed and destroyed salt
marshes
People have altered or destroyed salt marshes for

development
- We lose key ecosystem service
- Flooding worsens

Mangrove forests line coasts
In tropical and subtropical latitudes
- Replace salt marshes along sandy
coasts
Mangroves = trees with unique roots
- Curve upwards for oxygen
- Curve downwards for support
Nurseries for commercial fish and
shellfish
Nesting areas for birds
Food, medicine, tools, construction
materials
Mangrove forests have been destroyed
Development for residential, commercial, and
recreational uses
Shrimp farming
Half the worlds mangrove forests are gone
Once destroyed, coastal areas no longer
- Slow runoff
- Filter pollutants
- Retain soil
- Protect communities against storm surges
We are protecting only 1% of remaining mangroves

Estuaries: where fresh and salt water meet
Estuaries = water bodies where rivers flow into the

ocean
- Wide fluctuations in salinity
Critical habitat for shorebirds and shellfish
Transitional zone for anadromous (spawn in freshwater,
mature in salt water) fishes
Affected by development, pollution, habitat alteration,
and overfishing

Oceans provide transportation routes
Humans have interacted with oceans for thousands of
years
- Moving people and products over vast distances
- Accelerated global reach of cultures
Has substantial impact on the environment
- Moves resources around the world
- Ballast water transplants organisms, which may
become invasive

We extract energy from oceans
Crude oil and natural gas

- Oil spills damage fisheries
Methane hydrate = a potential
energy source
- Ice-like solid methane
embedded in water crystals
- A vast supply, but research
needs to be done
Renewable energy sources, such as
waves, tides, heat

We extract minerals from oceans
Minerals such as sand, gravel, sulfur, calcium carbonate,

and silica
Rich deposits of copper, zinc, silver, and gold
Manganese nodules are scattered along the oceans floor
- But, they are too hard to currently mine

Marine pollution threatens resources
Even into the mid-20th century, coastal U.S. cities

dumped trash and untreated sewage along their shores
Oil, plastic, chemicals, excess nutrients make their way
from land into oceans
Raw sewage and trash from cruise ships
Abandoned fishing gear from fishing boats
In 2006, 359,000 Ocean Conservancy volunteers from 66 nations

picked up 3.2 million kg (7 million lbs.) of trash

Nets and plastic debris endangers marine
life Plastic items dumped into the
sea harm or kill wildlife
Plastic is non-biodegradable
- Drifts for decades
- Washes up on beaches
- Wildlife eat it or get
entangled and die
Marine debris affects people
- Equipment damage
The 2006 Marine Debris
Research, Prevention and
Reduction Act
Oil pollution comes from spills of all sizes
Major oils spills (i.e., the Exxon
Valdez) make headlines and cause
serious environmental problems
Most pollution comes from small
sources
- Boat leakage and runoff from
land
- Naturally occurring leaks from
the seabed
Oil spills coat and poison wildlife

Oil pollution has decreased
Governments have implemented

more stringent regulations
The U.S. Oil Pollution Act of 1990
- Creates a $1 billion prevention
and cleanup fund
- Requires all ships have double
hulls by 2015
Recently, oil spills have decreased
- The oil industry resists such
safeguards

Toxic pollutants contaminate seafood
Mercury contamination
- From coal combustion and other sources
- Bioaccumulates and biomagnifies
- Dangerous to young children and pregnant or nursing
mothers
- Avoid eating swordfish, shark, and albacore tuna
- Eat seafood low in mercury (catfish, salmon, canned
light tuna)
Avoid seafood from areas where health advisories have
been issued

Excess nutrients cause algal blooms
Harmful algal blooms = nutrients

increase populations of algae that
produce powerful toxins
Red tide = algal species produce
reddish pigments that discolor water
- Illness and death to wildlife and
humans
- Economic losses to fishing
industries and beach tourism
Reduce runoff and prevent
consumption of affected organisms

Emptying the oceans
We are placing unprecedented pressure on marine

resources
- Half the worlds marine fish populations are fully
exploited
- 25% of fish population are overexploited and
heading to extinction
Total fisheries catch leveled off after 1998, despite
increased fishing effort
- It is predicted that populations of all ocean species
we fish for today will collapse by the year 2048

The total global fisheries catch has
increased

We have long overfished
People began depleting sea life centuries ago
Some species hunted to extinction: Stellers sea cow,
Atlantic gray whale, Caribbean monk seal
Overharvesting of Chesapeake Bay oyster beds led to
the collapse of its fishery, eutrophication, and
hypoxia
Decreased sea turtle populations causes overgrowth
of sea grass and can cause sea grass wasting disease
People never imagined that groundfish could be
depleted
- New approaches or technologies increased catch
rates
Fishing has industrialized
Factory fishing = highly industrialized, huge vessels use

powerful technologies to capture fish in huge volumes
- Even process and freeze their catches while at sea
Driftnets for schools of herring, sardines, mackerel, sharks
Longline fishing for tuna and swordfish
Trawling for pelagic fish and groundfish

Fishing practices kill nontarget animals
By-catch = the accidental capture of
animals
Driftnetting drowns dolphins, turtles, and
seals
- Fish die from air exposure on deck
- Banned or restricted by many nations
Longline fishing kills turtles, sharks, and
albatrosses
- 300,000 seabirds die each year
Bottom-trawling destroys communities
- Likened to clear-cutting and strip
mining

Modern fishing fleets deplete marine life
rapidly
Grand Banks cod have been fished for centuries
Catches more than doubled with immense industrial
trawlers
- Record-high catches lasted only 10 years

Industrialized fishing depletes populations
Catch rates drop precipitously with industrialized

fishing
- 90% of large-bodied fish and sharks are eliminated
within 10 years
- Populations stabilize at 10% of their former levels
Marine communities may have been very different
before industrial fishing
- Removing animals at higher trophic levels allows
prey to proliferate and change communities

Oceans today contain only one-tenth of the large-bodied
animals they once did

Several factors mask declines
Industrialized fishing has depleted stocks, global
catch has remained stable for the past 20 years
- Fishing fleets travel longer distances to reach less-
fished portions of the ocean
- Fleets spend more time fishing and have been
setting out more nets and lines, increasing effort to
catch the same number of fish
- Improved technologies: faster ships, sonar
mapping, satellite navigation, thermal sensing,
aerial spotting
- Data supplied to international monitoring agencies
may be false

We are fishing down the food chain
Figures on total global catch do not relate the species,

age, and size of fish harvested
As fishing increases, the size and age of fish caught
decline
- 10-year-old cod, once common, are now rare
As species become too rare to fish, fleets target other
species
- Shifting from large, desirable species to smaller, less
desirable ones
- Entails catching species at lower trophic levels

Consumer choices influence fishing
practices
Buy ecolabeled seafood
- Dolphin-safe tuna
Consumers dont know how their
seafood was caught
- Nonprofit organizations have
devised guides for consumers
- Best choices: farmed catfish and
caviar, sardines, Canadian snow crab
- Avoid: Atlantic cod, wild-caught
caviar, sharks, farmed salmon

Fisheries management
Based on maximum sustained yield
- Maximal harvest while keeping fish available for the
future
- Managers may limit the harvested or restrict gear used
Despite management, stocks have plummeted
- It is time to rethink fisheries management
Ecosystem-based management
- Shift away from species and toward the larger
ecosystem
- Consider the impacts of fishing on habitat and species
interactions
- Set aside areas of oceans free from human interference
We can protect areas in the ocean
Marine protected areas (MPAs) = established along the

coastlines of developed countries
- Still allow fishing or other extractive activities
Marine reserves = areas where fishing is prohibited
- Leave ecosystems intact, without human interference
- Improve fisheries, because young fish will disperse
into surrounding areas
Many commercial, recreation fishers, and businesses do
not support reserves

Reserves work for both fish and fisheries
Found that reserves do work as win-win solutions

Overall benefits included
- Boosting fish biomass
- Boosting total catch
- Increasing fish size
Benefits inside reserve boundaries included
- Rapid and long-term increases in marine organisms
- Decrease mortality and habitat destruction
- Lessen the likelihood of extirpation of species
Areas outside reserves also benefit
Benefits included
- A spillover effect when individuals of protected
species spread outside reserves
- Larvae of species protected within reserves seed the
seas outside reserves
- Improved fishing and ecotourism

How should reserves be designed?
20-50% of the ocean should be protected in no-take reserves

- How large?
- How many?
- Where?
Involving fishers is crucial fisheries in coming with these
answers

Conclusion
Oceans cover most of our planet and contain diverse

topography and ecosystems
We are learning about the oceans and coastal
environments, intensifying our use their resources
and causing severe impacts
Setting aside protected areas of the ocean can serve to
maintain natural systems and enhance fisheries
We may once again attain the ecological systems that
once flourished in our waters

QUESTION: Review
An upwelling is defined as.
a) The vertical flow of cold, deep water towards the

surface
b) The vertical flow of warm, deep water towards the
surface
c) The vertical flow of cold, shallow water towards the
bottom
d) The vertical flow of warm, deep water towards the
bottom

QUESTION: Review
The area of an ocean that contains open water that
receives sunlight is called the _______zone.
a) Littoral
b) Photic
c) Pelagic
d) Benthic

QUESTION: Review
_____ is defined as large, dense, brown algae growing
from the floor of continental shelves.
a) Coral
b) Red tide
c) Bottomfish
d) Kelp

QUESTION: Review
Coral bleaching occurs when .
a) Corals reproduce
b) Fish move into coral reefs
c) Zooxanthellae leave the coral
d) Coral reefs expand their range

QUESTION: Review
An area where rivers flow into the ocean is called a(n) ?
a) Estuary
b) Mangrove swamp
c) Salt marsh
d) Coral reef

QUESTION: Review
Which of the following does not mask the decline of
fisheries?
a) Fishing fleets travel longer distances

b) Fishing fleets spend more time fishing
c) Fishing fleets use traditional methods of fishing
d) Data supplied to monitoring agencies may be false

QUESTION: Review
Marine reserves have all the following benefits except:
a) Fishing increases in the reserve

b) The size of fish increases
c) Larvae can seed areas outside the reserve
d) Decreased mortality and habitat destruction

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
What does this graph show about the future of global

fisheries catch?
a) China will be a major
player in applying fishing
pressure
b) China will be player a
smaller role in applying
fishing pressure
c) The world will decrease its
fishing pressure
d) The U.S. is not included in
this graph

QUESTION: Interpreting Graphs and Data
Which conclusion can you draw from this graph?
a) Oceans today contain far
fewer fish
b) Oceans today contain far
more fish
c) It is easier to find fish today
d) There is little correlation
between fishing and fish
stocks

QUESTION: Viewpoints
If a developer wants to build a community on an
estuary, providing jobs but eliminating the marsh,
what should be done?
a) Let the developer build; we need the jobs

b) Let the developer build, but make him/her pay
for any damage from storms
c) Let the surrounding landowners vote whether
to let the developer build
d) Prevent the development; the potential
damage is too great

QUESTION: Viewpoints
Do you plan to alter your decisions about eating
seafood?
a) Yes; I will be more selective about what I eat

b) No; I will continue to eat the same type and
amount of seafood as always

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Ch 16

Marine and Coastal

Copyright 2006 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

The marine environment

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

No fish has more impact on human

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

They live or feed along the bottom

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Ocean water is 96.5% water

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Currents = the ocean is composed of vast riverlike

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Some zones support more life than others

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Coral reef = a mass of calcium carbonate composed of the

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

They thrive in waters outside the tropics

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Intertidal (littoral) ecosystems = where the ocean

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

But they have remarkable

Salt marsh = occur along coasts at temperate latitude

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

People have altered or destroyed salt marshes for

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Estuaries = water bodies where rivers flow into the

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Crude oil and natural gas

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Minerals such as sand, gravel, sulfur, calcium carbonate,

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Even into the mid-20th century, coastal U.S. cities

In 2006, 359,000 Ocean Conservancy volunteers from 66 nations

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Governments have implemented

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Harmful algal blooms = nutrients

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

We are placing unprecedented pressure on marine

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Factory fishing = highly industrialized, huge vessels use

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Catch rates drop precipitously with industrialized