ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

UNIT - II

ECOSYSTEMS
 ECOSYSTEM
Concept of Ecosystem

Structure and function of an ecosystem.

Producers, consumers and decomposers.
Energy flow in the ecosystem.
Ecological succession.
Food chains, food webs and ecological pyramids.

Introduction, types, characteristic features, structure and function of the

following ecosystem:
(i) Forest ecosystem
(ii) Grassland ecosystem
(iii) Desert ecosystem
(iv) Aquatic ecosystems - ponds, streams, lakes, rivers, oceans,
estuaries.
ECOLOGY
All living organisms whether plant or animal or human being is
surrounded by the environment from which it drive its needs for its
survival . Each living component interacts with non-living components
for their requirements from different ecosystem.

Definition :

Ecology is the Study of interactions among organisms or group of

organisms with their environment. The environment consists of both
biotic components ( living organisms) and abiotic components ( non-
living organisms )

Ecology is the Study of ecosystems.

ECOSYSTEM

Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology. the term

ecosystem means study of home

DEFINITION :

A group of organisms interacting among themselves and with

environment is known as Ecosystem. Thus an ecosystem is a
community of different species interacting with one another and with
their non-living environment exchanging Energy and matter.

Example: Animals cannot synthesis their food directly but depend on

the plants either directly or indirectly.
BIOME ( SMALL ECOSYSTEM )

The kind of organisms which can live in a particular ecosystem

depends on their physical and metabolic adoptions to the
environment of that place. On earth there are many sets of
ecosystems which are exposed to same climatic conditions and
having dominant species with similar life cycle, climatic adoptions and
physical structure. This set of ecosystem is called Biome.

Thus the Biome is a small ecosystem with in an Ecosystem.

ECOSYSTEM
CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM

The term Ecosystem was proposed by British ecologist A G Tansley in

1935, who defined it as the system resulting from the integration of all
living and non-living factors of the environment.
All living organisms and their non-living environment interact with each
other at different points in time and at different places.
Such interactions sustain the system and allow it to respond to changing
conditions.
Thus, any unit in which all the organisms, i.e., the communities in a given
area, interact with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads
to a clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycling
within the system is known as an Ecological system of ecosystem.
The word trophic means to feed.
Thus, the term trophic structure refers to the feeding relationships,
including the predator-prey relationships and the plant-herbivore
relationships.
An Ecosystem may, in its simplest form, be defined as self-sustained
community of plants and animals existing in its own environment.
The plants, animals, and micro-organisms present in an ecosystem form the
biotic components, whereas the physical and chemical factors constitute the
abiotic components of an ecosystem.
SCOPE OF ECOLOGY

An Ecosystem is the basic and functional unit of Ecology.

It gives information about the available solar energy in an area

and also about the availability of mineral elements, their utilization, and
recycling.

Information can also be gathered about the ways of increasing

productivity, the effects of pollution, and the degree of exploitation and the
need for conservation of resources.

The sum total of all the ecosystems on planet Earth is called the
Biosphere, which includes all living organisms interacting with the
physical environment as a whole to maintain a steady-state ecosystem.
TYPES OR CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS

ECOSYSTEM

NATURAL ECOSYSTEM AND ARTIFICIAL / MAN MADE ECOSYSTEM

(CROPLANDS, DAMS ETC.,)
1. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM
2. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM - DIVIDED INTO

FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM AND MARINE ECOSYSTEM

FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM DIVIDED INTO

RUNNING WATER (LOTIC) SPRING, STREAM, RIVERS ETC.,
AND STANDING WATER ECOSYSTEM (LENTIC) LAKE , POND, POOLS, ETC.,

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM DIVIDED INTO

GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM,
FOREST ECOSYSTEM AND
DESERT ECOSYSTEM
NATURAL ECOSYSTEM

NATURAL ECOSYSTEM OPERATE THEMSELVES UNDER NATURAL

CONDITIONS BASED ON HABITAT TYPES, IT CAN BE FURTHER CLASSIFIED
INTO:

1. TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM : THIS ECOSYSTEM RELATED TO LAND

AND TYPES OF VEGETATION.

EXAMPLES : GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM, FOREST ECOSYSTEM, DESRET

ECOSYSTEM.

2. AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM : THIS ECOSYSTEM IS RELATED TO

WATER, IT IS FURTHER SUB CLASSIFIED INTO:

FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM :

a. RUNNING WATER ECOSYSTEMS RIVERS , STREAMS

b. STANDING WATER ECOSYSTEMS - POND , LAKE

MARINE ECOSYSTEM SEA AND SEA SHORES.

 STRUCTURE AND COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

THE TERM STRUCTURE REFERS TO THE VARIOUS COMPONENTS, SO THE

STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYSTEM EXPLAINS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
THE ABIOTIC (NON-LIVING) AND BIOTIC (LIVING) COMPONENTS.

AN ECOSYSTEM HAS TWO MAJOR COMPONENTS:

1. ABIOTIC ( NON-LIVING) COMPONENTS,

2. BIOTIC (LIVING) COMPONENTS.

ABIOTIC ( NON-LIVING) COMPONENTS :

THE NON-LIVING COMPONENTS (PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL) OF AN

ECOSYSTEM COLLECTIVELY FORM A COMMUNITY CALLED
ABIOTIC COMPONENTS OR ABIOTIC COMMUNITY.

EXAMPLES : CLIMATE, SOIL, WATER, AIR, ENERGY, NUTRIENTS ETC.,

1. PHYSICAL COMPONENTS : THEY INCLUDE THE ENERGY ,
CLIMATE, RAW MATERIALS AND LIVING SPACE THAT THE
BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITY NEEDS. THEY ARE USEFUL FOR THE
GROWTH AND MAINTENANCE OF ITS MEMBER.
EXAMPLE: AIR, WATER, SOIL, SUNLIGHT, ETC.,

2. CHEMICAL COMPONENTS: THEY ARE THE SOURCES OF

ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS.

a. ORGANIC SUBSTANCES : PROTEINS, CARBOHYDRATES, ETC.,

b. INORGANIC SUBSTANCES : ALL MICRO (AL, CO, ZN, CU) AND MACRO
ELEMENTS (C,H,O,P,N,P,K) AND FEW OTHER ELEMENTS.

BIOTIC COMPONENTS :

THE LIVING ORGANISMS OR LIVING MEMBERS IN AN ECOSYSTEM

COLLECTIVELY FORM ITS COMMUNITY CALLED BIOTIC
COMPONENTS OR BIOTIC COMMUNITY.

THE LIVING COMPONENTS ARE MADE OF MANY DIFFERENT

SPECIES ARE DISTINGUISHED ON THE BASIS OF THEIR
NUTRITIONAL (FEEDING) RELATIONSHIP. IT INCLUDES:
1. AUTOTROPHIC COMPONENTS: THE MEMBERS OF AUTOTROPHIC
COMPONENTS ARE PRODUCERS, WHICH ARE AUTOTROPS
(SELF-NOURISHING ORGANISMS). THEY DERIVE ENERGY FROM
SUNLIGHT AND MAKE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS FROM INORGANIC
SUBSTANCES.

EXAMPLES: GREEN PLANTS , ALGAE, BACTERIA ETC.,

2. HETEROTROPHIC COMPONENTS : THE MEMBERS OF

HETEROTROPHIC COMPONENTS ARE CONSUMERS AND
DECOMPOSERS, WHICH ARE HETEROTROPHS (DEPENDENT ON
OTHERS FOR FOOD) THEY CONSUME THE AUTOTROPHS
( PRODUCERS). THE HETEROTROPHS ARE :

a. MACRO CONSUMERS : THEY ARE HERBOVORES, OMNIVORES OR

CARNIVORES.

b. SAPTROTROPHS (MICRO CONSUMERS) :THEY ARE DECOMPOSERS (

BACTERIA, FUNGI , ETC.,)
CLASSIFICATION OF BIOTIC COMPONENTS

THE MEMBERS OF BIOTIC COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM ARE

GROUPED INTO THREE GROUPS BASED ON HOW DO THEY
GET THEIR FOOD :

1. PRODUCERS ( PLANTS)
2. CONSUMERS (ANIMALS)
3. DECOMPOSERS ( MICRO-ORGANISMS)

PRODUCERS (AUTOTROPHS) : PRODUECRS SYNTHESIZE THEIR

FOOD THEMSELVES THROUGH PHOTOSYNTHESIS.

EXAMPLES : ALL GREEN PLANTS, TREES

PHOTOSYNTHESIS : THE GREEN PIGMENTS CALLED CHLOROPHYLLL

PRESENT IN THE LEAVES OF PLANTS, CONVERTS CO2 AND H2O IN THE
PRESENCE OF SUNLIGHT INTO CARBOHYDRATES.
2. CONSUMERS ( HETEROTROPHS) : CONSUMERS ARE ORGANISMS
WHICH CANNOT PREPARE THEIR OWN FOOD AND DEPEND
DIRECTLY OR INDIRECTLY ON THE PRODUCERS.

THEY CANNOT MAKE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS BUT CAN

TRANSFORM ONE FORM OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS INTO OTHER
FORM OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS.

EXAMPLES:
a. PLANT EATING SPECIES INSECTS, RABBIT, GOAT, DEER, COW , ETC.,
b. ANIMALS EATING SPECIES FISH, LIONS, TIGERS , ETC.,

TYPES OF CONSUMERS :

CONSUMERS ARE OF THE FOLLOWING TYPES:

a. PRIMARY CONSUMERS ( HERBIVORES) (PLANT EATERS)

PRIMARY CONSUMERS ARE ALSO CALLED HERBIVORES, THEY
DIRECTLY DEPEND ON THE PLANTS FOR THEIR FOOD. SO THEY
ARE CALLED PLANT EATERS.
EXAMPLE : INSECTS, RAT, GOAT, DEER , COW, HORSES..
b. SECONDARY CONSUMERS ( PRIMARY CARNIVORES ) ( MEAT
EATERS) : SECONDARY CONSUMERS ARE PRIMARY CARNIVORES ,
THEY FEED ON PRIMARY CONSUMERS. THEY DIRECTLY DEPEND
ON THE HERBIVORES FOR THEIR FOOD.

EXAMPLE: FROG, CAT, SNAKES, FOXES..ETC.,

c. TERTIARY CONSUMERS (SECONDARY CARNIVORES) (MEAT

EATERS): TERTIARY CONSUMERS ARE SECONDARY
CARNIVORES , THEY FEED ON SECONDARY CONSUMERS. THEY
DIRECTLY DEPEND ON THE PRIMARY CARNIVORES FOR THEIR
FOOD.

EXAMPLE: TIGERS, LIONS, ETC.,

DECOMPOSERS : DECOMPOSERS ARE THOSE ORGANISMS WHICH

FEED ON DEAD ORGANISMS PLANTS AND ANIMALS AND
DECOMPOSE THEM INTO SIMPLER COMPOUNDS . DURING THE
DECOMPOSITION INORGANIC NUTRIENTS ARE RELEASED .
THESE INORGANIC NUTRIENTS TOGETHER WITH OTHER
ORGANIC SUBSTANCES ARE THEN UTILIZED BY THE
PRODUCERS FOR THE SYNTHESIS OF THEIR OWN FOOD.
MEANINGS :

HERBIVORES: ANIMALS THAT EAT ONLY PLANTS ARE CALLED

HERBIVORES.

CARNIVORES : ANIMALS THAT EAT OTHER ANIMALS ARE CALLED

CARNIVORES . ( NON-VEGETERAIN)

OMNIVORES : ANIMALS THAT EAT BOTH ANIMALS AND PLANTS (

VEGETERIAN AND NON-VEGETERIAN ).

HABITAT : IS THE PLACE A PLANT OR ANIMAL LIVES, WHILE ITS

NICHE IS ITS TOTAL WAY OF LIFE. IT IS DEFINED AS THE
PHYSICAL OR ABIOTIC PART OF AN ECOSYSTEM i.e DEFINED
AREA WITH SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTICS WHERE THE
ORGANISMS LIVE , eg. OAK FOREST , DEEP SEA, SAND DUNES,
ROCKY SHORE, MOORLAND, HEDGEGROW, GARDEN POND ETC.,

COMMUNITY : IS THE LIVING OR BIOTIC PART OF AN

ECOSYSTEM, i.e, ALL THE POPULATION OF ALL THE DIFFERENT
SPECIES LIVING IN ONE HABITAT.
FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM :

TO UNDERSTAND CLEARLY THE NATURE OF ECOSYSTEM, ITS FUNCTIONING

SHOULD BE THOROUGHLY UNDERSTOOD. THE FUNCTIONS OF AN
ECOSYSTEM IS TO ALLOW FLOW OF ENERGY AND CYCLING OF
NUTRIENTS.

TYPES OF FUNCTIONS : FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM ARE OF

THREE TYPES :

1. PRIMARY FUNCTION OR PRIMARY PRODUCTION : THE PRIMARY

FUNCTION OF ALL ECOSYSTEM IS MANUFACTURE OF STARCH
( PHOTOSYSNTHESIS)

2. SECONDARY FUNCTION OR SECONDARY PRODUCTION : THE

SECONDARY FUNCTION OF ALL ECOSYSTEM IS DISTRIBUTING ENERGY
IN THE FORM OF FOOD TO ALL CONSUMERS OR THE ENERGY STORED
BY THE CONSUMER.

3. TERTIARY FUNCTION : ALL LIVING SYSTEMS DIE AT A PARTICULAR

STAGE . THESE DEAD SYSTEMS ARE DECOMPOSED TO INITIATE THE
THIRD FUNCTION OF ECOSYSTEMS NAMELY CYCLING.
THE FUNCTIONING OF AN ECOSYSTEM MAY BE UNDERSTOOD BY
STUDYING THE FOLLOWING TERMS :

a. ENERGY AND MATERIAL FLOW,

b. FOOD CHAINS,
c. FOOD WEBS,
d. FOOD PYRAMIDS.

SOME ENERGY IS LOST AT EACH TROPHIC LEVELS AS HEAT

WHEN CONSUMERS BURN FOOD DURING CELLULAR
RESPIRATION.

BOTH ENERGY AND NUTRIENTS MUST MOVE THROUGH AN

ECOSYSTEM.
FOOD CHAIN

A food chain is a simplified way of showing the food relationships

between plants and animals.

Food chains in an ecosystem start from green plants (producers).

The producers are consumed by the herbivores that, in turn, are eaten by
carnivores.

Hence the transfer of food energy from the source (plants) through a
series of organisms by repeated eating and being eaten up is referred to
as a food chain.

Elton (1927) was the first to apply this idea to ecology.

For example, [Grass Cow Human] is a food chain. When drawing a
food chain, the arrows point in the direction the food energy is moving.
Usually, food chains show the living elements.

However, some food chains can also show the non-living elements like
sun, air, water and soil, since they are used by plants to make their own
food.
Food Pyramid

Another way of showing a food chain is by using a food pyramid.

The energy of the primary consumer is passed on to the secondary
consumer, thus forming a food chain.
Each member of a food chain depends on the member below it for energy.
An energy pyramid shows the energy transfer from prey to predator.
Animals at the top of the pyramid are fewer in number and need to eat
many smaller animals to get enough energy to survive.
The number of living things near the base of the pyramid is the largest.
The primary consumers are much more numerous than the secondary
consumers.
On the following page is a food pyramid that illustrates the same food
chain.
Also found on the following page, is another food pyramid that shows the
number of living things found at each level of the pyramid.
Types of Food Chain

Food chains may either start from producers or from decaying matter.
Depending on the starting point, food chains can be of the following types.

Grazing Food Chain

Grazing food chains are common in nature and are more frequently discussed.
They depend directly on solar radiation.
Producers form the first link in a grazing food chain.
Primary consumers (or herbivores) form the second link as they obtain their
energy from the producers, while the secondary consumers, which form the
third link on the chain, obtain energy by consuming the herbivores.

Detritus Food Chain

The organic wastes and the dead matter derived from grazing food chains are
termed detritus.
The energy contained in the detritus is consumed by detrivores that form a
detritus food chain in the ecosystem.
Detrivores (also known as saprophages, or detritus feeders) are
animals that consume detritus (decomposing organic matter), and in doing
so contribute to decomposition and the recycling of nutrients.
Detrivores include earthworms, dung beetles, millipedes, etc.
 The organisms of the detritus food chain include algae, bacteria, insects,
mites, etc.
They ingest pieces of partially decomposed organic matter, digest
them partially and after extracting chemical energy for their
metabolism, excrete the remainder in the form of slightly simpler
organic molecules.
The detritus food chain differs from the grazing food chain as the organisms
in the detritus food chain are generally smaller (such as algae, bacteria,
fungi, insects, and centipedes) and the functional roles of different
organisms do not fall into categories as neatly as the trophic levels of the
grazing food chain.
However, grazing food chains and detritus food chains are linked with
each other since dead organisms from grazing food chain form the base
for the detritus food chain, which in turn provides nutrients that are vital to
the green plants.
Thus, one cannot exist without the other.
Significance of Food Chains

Food chains are important for maintain and regulating the

population size of different animals and thus are instrumental in
maintenance of ecological balance.
Food chains show a unique property of accumulation of certain
chemicals.
There are several pesticides, heavy metals, and other chemicals
which are non-biodegradable in nature and are not decomposed
by micro-organisms.
They keep on passing from one trophic level to another and,
at each successive trophic level, their concentration keeps on
increasing.
This phenomenon is known as bio-magnification or biological
magnification.
Trophic Levels:

The number of steps or links in a food chain is restricted usually to four or

five.
In a food chain, each stage of transfer of food energy is known as trophic
level.
Therefore, trophic levels refer to the successive levels of energy flow that
form the links of the food chain.
In a food chain, a trophic level consists of those organisms who are the
same number of steps away from the original source of energy.
As herbivores, whether they are zebras or deer usually out number
their predators, lions or wolves, the usable energy decreases with each
trophic level.
Owing to this rapid decrease in the amount of usable energy, the length of
the food chain is usually limited to a maximum of four or five levels.
FOOD WEB

It is not possible to depict the real world by means of simple food chains,
because the interactions between different trophic levels in the real world
are extremely complicated.
All organisms do not have specific diet; varied diets add to the
complexity of a food chain, and with each level, the complexity of the
food chain increases.
For instance, a plant is eaten by many herbivores. For example,
butterflies feed on the nectar of flowers, birds consume fruits, and animals
such as deer and rabbits eat the leaves of plants.
Similarly, depending upon the various primary consumers, there may be
different secondary consumers.
Hence, too many food chains emerge from one single plant.
The same organism may operate at more than one trophic level as it may
be eaten up by several organisms of a higher trophic level or several
organisms may feed upon it.
Thus, we find that various food chains are linked and interact with each
other.
 These interlocking patterns formed by several food chains that are linked
together are called food webs.

A food web opens several pathways for the flow of food energy.
It also allows an organism to obtain its food from two or more types of
organisms of the lower trophic level.

Therefore, we can say that food web helps in maintain the stability of the
ecosystem.

More complex food webs bring stability to the ecosystem as they provide
alternative trophic levels.
ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS

ENERGY IS THE MOST ESSENTIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR ALL LIVING

ORGANISMS. SOLAR ENERGY IS THE ONLY SOURCE TO OUR
PLANET EARTH. SOLAR ENERGY IS TRANSFORMED TO CHEMICAL
ENERGY IN PHOSYNTHESIS BY THE PLANTS ( CALLED AS PRIMARY
PRODUCERS).

THOUGH A LOT OF SUNLIGHT FALLS ON THE GREEN PLANTS, ONLY

1% OF IT IS UTILIZED FOR PHOTOSYNTHESIS. THIS IS THE MOST
ESSENTIAL STEP TO PROVIDE ENERGY FOR ALL OTHER LIVING
ORGANISMS IN THE ECOSYSTEM.

SOME AMOUNT OF CHEMICAL ENERGY IS USED BY THE PLANTS FOR

THEIR GROWTH AND REMAINING IS TRANSFERRED TO CONSUMERS BY
THE PROCESS OF EATING.

THE ENERGY ENTERS THE ECOSYSTEM THROUGH PHOTOSYSNTHESIS

AND PASSES THROUGH THE DIFFERENT TROPIC LEVELS ( FEEDING
LEVELS).
Three things can happen to the energy taken in by the organisms in a
trophic level:

It can be passed on to the next trophic level in the food chain when
the organism is eaten.

It can become stored in detritus. This energy is passed on to

decomposers when the detritus decays.

It can be converted to heat energy by inefficient chemical reactions,

radiated by warm bodies, or in friction due to movement. The heat
energy is lost to the surroundings, and cannot be regained by living
organisms.
Flow of Energy

Biological activity involves the utilization of energy.

Energy is obtained from the sun and is transformed from radiant form
to chemical form by photosynthesis and from chemical form to mechanical
form during mechanical activity.
The flow of energy is always unidirectional.
It is not possible for energy to pass from the third trophic level to the
second trophic level and from the second trophic level to the first trophic
level.
Energy flow in ecosystems follows two laws of thermodynamics:

The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be

created nor be destroyed, but can only be transformed from one form
to another.

The second law of thermodynamics states that no energy

transformations are 100% efficient.
A plant biomass of say 100 kg will not form the same weight of flesh in a
herbivore. Instead, most of the plant biomass is broken down by the
herbivore in releasing energy for its activities through the process of
respiration. Only about 10% of this organic food is stored as flesh. This is
often called the ten-percent rule. It is depicted as follows:

PRODUCER PRIMARY SECONDARY TERTIARY

1000-KCAL CONSUMER CONSUMER CONSUMER
100-KCAL 10-KCAL 1-KCAL

According to the ten-percent rule, 90% of the energy is used at each trophic
level and only 10% of the energy is retained in an organisms tissues. For
example, if a plant captures 1,000 kcal of solar energy, only 100 kcal of it
would be converted into plant tissue, which can be used to produce
only 10 kcal of herbivore tissue, and subsequently only 1 kcal of
carnivore tissue.
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

In the energy flow between the trophic levels, there exists relationship
between the number of organisms (also called as biomass) and the
energy content of producers and consumers at different levels.

This relationship can be represented diagrammatically using ecological

pyramids.
An ecological pyramid is a graphical representation of the trophic
structure of an ecosystem where producers occupy the base and the
top consumers occupy the top of the pyramid.
Charles Elton, a pioneer British ecologist developed the concept of
ecological pyramids.
Ecological pyramids are of three types:

Pyramid Number
Pyramid of Biomass
Pyramid of Energy
Pyramid Number

A pyramid of number shows the number of organisms at each trophic

level of the ecosystem.

It shows the relationship between producers, herbivores, and carnivores at

successive trophic levels in terms of their number.

The organisms which have the maximum population in the ecosystem

form the base of pyramid, while the organisms with the minimum
population form the top.

Example: In grassland as well as cropland ecosystems, the number of

producers is higher than the number of herbivores which is higher than the
number of carnivores. Hence, the pyramid is upright.

However, in case of forest ecosystems, the pyramid is inverted because

the number of primary consumers in forests is higher than the number of
producers.
 Pyramid of Biomass

Biomass is defined as the total living material present in any organism.

It is measured in terms of dry weight of organisms per unit area.

Example: In grassland and forest ecosystems, there is a gradual decrease

in biomass from bottom to the top of the pyramid. Hence, the shape of the
pyramid is upright.

However, in a pond, as the producers are small organisms, their

biomass is the least, and this value gradually shows an increase
towards the apex of the pyramid thus making the pyramid inverted in
shape.
 Pyramid of Energy

The pyramid of energy provides the best representation of the overall

nature of an ecosystem.

It represents a dynamic situation since it shows the rates of passage of

energy through the food chain, while the pyramids of number and biomass
represent standing situations.

In terms of energy, the producers always posses greater energy

compared to the herbivores.

The energy transferred to the next trophic level is lesser; therefore, the
consumers get lesser amount of energy than the herbivores.

Since this energy relation is always maintained, the shape of energy

pyramid always remains upright.
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

An ideal community must always maintain itself more or less in equilibrium

with the prevailing conditions of the environment, it is not found to be true in
nature.
Communities are never stable, instead they are dynamic, changing more or
less regularly over the time and space.
They are never found permanently in complete balance with their component
species or with the physical environment.
Environment always keeps on changing over a period of time due to:
Variations in climatic and physiographic factors,
Activities of the species of the communities themselves.
These influences bring about marked changes in the dominant community,
which is thus sooner or later replaced by another community at the same
place.
This process continues and successive communities develop one after the other
over the same area, until the final community again becomes more or less
stable for a period of time.
This occurrence of relatively definite sequence of communities over a period
of time in the same area is known as Ecological succession.
Ecological succession may take place in forests, ponds, lakes, or grasslands.
The process of ecological succession consists of a number of stages.
 The climax stable community can be established after several thousands
of years as a result of ecological succession.
There are several ecological changes that take place in a community
during ecological succession.
The size of the individuals generally increases while moving from early to
climax stage.
The food chains and food webs that can exist in early stage are much
more simplified than those occurring in climax stage.
Thus, efficiency of energy use and nutrient cycling are low in early stage
as compared to the climax stage.
All these factors contribute to the complex community organization in the
climax stage.
During ecological succession, it is possible to observe both the
ongoing process of succession and the consequences of past
succession events at almost any point.
The two primary causes that may initiate ecological succession include
the impact of an established species as well as the impact of external
natural forces, which try to alter the environmental conditions of an area.
Both of these forces may influence new species to become ascendant
and possibly dominant within the ecosystem by replacing the older
dominant community.
 Some specific examples of observable succession include:

The growth of hardwood trees (including ash, poplar, and oak) within the
red pine planting area as the number of hardwood trees increases, it
results in increased shading and subsequently leads to mortality of the
red pines which are sun loving and cannot survive in shade. On
the other hand, the hardwood seedlings are shade tolerant and
continue to thrive in the shaded forest floor. This further boosts the
population of the hardwood trees. As a result, hardwood trees are
replacing the red pines and fast becoming the dominant community.

In forests of north-eastern North America, some trees such as Yellow Birch

and Black Cherry grow well in areas that are sunlit by large gaps in forest
canopies. In the absence of disturbances that create such gaps, these
species find it difficult to grow since they are intolerant of shade and are
eventually replaced by shade-tolerant species.
Impact of Ecological Succession on Human Beings

Ecosystems are continuously changing and re-organizing.

Ecological succession refers to the orderly changes in the composition
or structure of ecosystems.
Its impact on human beings may be understood by considering the
following example.
In order to plant a garden, the land has to be cleared and the soil needs to
be prepared.
These activities drastically restructure the land and completely disrupt a
previously stabilized ecosystem.
The process of ecological succession immediately begins in this disturbed
ecosystem.
The plot is rapidly invaded by plant species called weeds which are well
adapted to such freshly tilled lands.
Weeds compete with the garden plants for nutrients, water, and space
and hence undesirable.
They are highly productive and if nothing is done to get rid of them, they
choke and wipe out the garden plants and eventually occupy the entire
garden.
Types of Ecological Succession

Ecological succession may be of the following types:

Primary succession: Primary succession can start on terrestrial or

aquatic environments which were devoid of any vegetation previously. The
organisms that establish there first are called pioneers or primary
colonizers. This initial or pioneer community gradually develops through a
number of stages or seres to form the final or climax community.
 Secondary succession: It refers to a succession in which an already
existing dominant plant community is replaced by another plant
community. Removal of past vegetation may be caused by natural or
human disturbances such as soil erosion, fire, earthquake, etc. Thus,
although the area becomes devoid of living matter, its substratum is not
primitive.
Process of Ecological Succession

The following steps are involved in ecological succession of any natural area:

Nudation: The process of certain of a bare area devoid of any plant or

animal population is called Nudation. Nudation may be caused by
humans for industrial and agricultural purposes, or by climatic as well as
biotic disturbances such as floods, landslides, etc.

Invasion: The process of successful establishment of new species in the

bare area is called invasion. The new species may reach the area from
another area. Invasion is completed in the following three stages:
Migration: (dispersal) in the first stage of invasion, the seeds, spores,
or other propagules of the species reach the bare area. This process is
known as migration and is generally brought about by agents such as air
and water.
Ecesis: (Establishment) after reaching the bare area, the new species
start to establish themselves in it.
The process of successful establishment of the species in an area as a result
of the conditions prevailing there is known as Ecesis. During ecesis, the
seeds of the new species of plants germinate, seedlings grow, and
adults start to reproduce. Only a few of them are capable of doing
this under primitive harsh conditions, and thus most of them disappear.
Therefore, the process of Ecesis enables the individuals of new species to
become established in the area.
Aggregation: After ecesis, the population of the new species
constantly rises as a result of increased reproduction. The members of
the species increase in number and come close to each other. This
process is known as Aggregation.

Competition: as the population of the species increases (as a result

of invasion), the availability in the individuals of the species.
Stabilization: After passing through all the stages, the species completely
establish themselves in the area and the ecosystem attains stability.
This process is known as stabilization. These species exist in complete
harmony with the ecosystem as long as the environmental, climatic,
and biotic conditions remain undisturbed.