Chapter

2
Data Collection
Data Vocabulary
Level of Measurement
Time Series and Cross-sectional Data
Sampling Concepts
Sampling Methods
Data Sources
Survey Research
 Data Vocabulary
Data is the plural form of the Latin datum (a given
fact).
In scientific research, data arise
from experiments whose results
are recorded systematically.
In business, data usually arise from
accounting transactions or
management processes.

Important decisions may depend on data.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin 2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
 Data Vocabulary
Subjects, Variables, Data Sets
We will refer to Data as plural and data set as a
particular collection of data as a whole.
Observation each data value.
Subject (or individual) an item for study (e.g., an
employee in your company).
Variable a characteristic about the subject or
individual (e.g., employees income).
 Data Vocabulary
Subjects, Variables, Data Sets
Three types of data sets:
Data Set Variables Typical Tasks
Univariate One Histograms, descriptive
statistics, frequency tallies

Bivariate Two Scatter plots, correlations,

simple regression

Multivariate More than Multiple regression, data

two mining, econometric modeling
 Data Vocabulary
Subjects, Variables, Data Sets
Consider the multivariate data set with
5 variables 8 subjects
5 x 8 = 40 observations
 Data Vocabulary
Data Types
A data set may have a mixture of data types.

Types of Data

Attribute Numerical
(qualitative) (quantitative)

Verbal Label Coded Discrete Continuous

X = economics X=3 X=2 X = 3.15
(your major) (i.e., economics) (your siblings) (your GPA)
 Data Vocabulary
Attribute Data
Also called categorical, nominal or qualitative data.
Values are described by words rather than
numbers.
For example,
- Automobile style (e.g., X = full, midsize,
compact, subcompact).
- Mutual fund (e.g., X = load, no-load).
 Data Vocabulary
Data Coding
Coding refers to using numbers to represent
categories to facilitate statistical analysis.
Coding an attribute as a number does not make
the data numerical.
For example,
1 = Bachelors, 2 = Masters, 3 = Doctorate
Rankings may exist, for example,
1 = Liberal, 2 = Moderate, 3 = Conservative
 Data Vocabulary
Binary Data
A binary variable has only two values,
1 = presence, 0 = absence of a characteristic of
interest (codes themselves are arbitrary).
For example,
1 = employed, 0 = not employed
1 = married, 0 = not married
1 = male, 0 = female
1 = female, 0 = male
The coding itself has no numerical value so binary
variables are attribute data.
 Data Vocabulary
Numerical Data
Numerical or quantitative data arise from counting
or some kind of mathematical operation.
For example,
- Number of auto insurance claims filed in
March (e.g., X = 114 claims).
- Ratio of profit to sales for last quarter
(e.g., X = 0.0447).
Can be broken down into two types discrete or
continuous data.
 Data Vocabulary
Discrete Data
A numerical variable with a countable number of
values that can be represented by an integer (no
fractional values).
For example,
- Number of Medicaid patients (e.g., X = 2).
- Number of takeoffs at OHare (e.g., X = 37).
 Data Vocabulary
Continuous Data
A numerical variable that can have any value
within an interval (e.g., length, weight, time, sales,
price/earnings ratios).
Any continuous interval contains infinitely many
possible values (e.g., 426 < X < 428).
 Data Vocabulary
Rounding
Ambiguity is introduced when continuous data are
rounded to whole numbers.
Underlying measurement scale is continuous.
Precision of measurement depends on instrument.
Sometimes discrete data are treated as
continuous when the range is very large (e.g., SAT
scores) and small differences (e.g., 604 or 605)
arent of much importance.
 Level of Measurement
Four levels of measurement for data:
Level of
Measurement Characteristics Example
Nominal Categories only Eye color (blue, brown,
green, hazel)
Ordinal Rank has meaning Bond ratings (Aaa, Aab,
C, D, F, etc.)
Interval Distance has Temperature (57o
meaning Celsius)
Ratio Meaningful zero Accounts payable ($21.7
exists million)
 Level of Measurement
Nominal Measurement
Nominal data merely identify a category.
Nominal data are qualitative, attribute, categorical
or classification data (e.g., Apple, Compaq, Dell,
HP).
Nominal data are usually coded numerically,
codes are arbitrary (e.g., 1 = Apple, 2 = Compaq,
3 = Dell, 4 = HP).
Only mathematical operations are counting (e.g.,
frequencies) and simple statistics.
 Level of Measurement
Ordinal Measurement
Ordinal data codes can be ranked
(e.g., 1 = Frequently, 2 = Sometimes, 3 = Rarely,
4 = Never).
Distance between codes is not meaningful
(e.g., distance between 1 and 2, or between 2 and
3, or between 3 and 4 lacks meaning).
Many useful statistical tests exist for ordinal data.
Especially useful in social science, marketing and
human resource research.
 Level of Measurement
Interval Measurement
Data can not only be ranked, but also have
meaningful intervals between scale points
(e.g., difference between 60F and 70F is same
as difference between 20F and 30F).
Since intervals between numbers represent
distances, mathematical operations can be
performed (e.g., average).
Zero point of interval scales is arbitrary, so ratios
are not meaningful (e.g., 60F is not twice as
warm as 30F).
 Level of Measurement
Likert Scales
A special case of interval data frequently used in
survey research.
The coarseness of a Likert scale refers to the
number of scale points (typically 5 or 7).
College-bound high school students should be required to study a
foreign language. (check one)

Strongly Somewhat Neither Somewhat Strongly
Agree Agree Agree Disagree Disagree
Nor
Disagree
 Level of Measurement
Likert Scales
A neutral midpoint (Neither Agree Nor Disagree)
is allowed if an odd number of scale points is used
or omitted to force the respondent to lean one
way or the other.
Likert coding: Likert coding:
Likert data are 1 to 5 scale -2 to +2 scale
coded numerically 5 = Help a lot +2 = Help a lot
(e.g., 1 to 5) but any 4 = Help a little +1 = Help a little
3 = No effect 0 = No effect
equally spaced 2 = Hurt a little 1 = Hurt a little
values will work. 1 = Hurt a lot 2 = Hurt a lot
 Level of Measurement
Likert Scales
Careful choice of verbal anchors results in
measurable intervals (e.g., the distance from 1 to
2 is the same as the interval, say, from 3 to 4).

Ratios are not meaningful (e.g., here 4 is not

twice 2).
Many statistical calculations can be performed
(e.g., averages, correlations, etc.).
 Level of Measurement
Likert Scales
More variants of Likert scales:
How would you rate your marketing instructor? (check one)

Terrible Poor Adequate Good Excellent

How would you rate your marketing instructor? (check one)

Very Bad Very Good

 Level of Measurement
Ambiguity
Grades are usually coded numerically
(A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, D = 1, F = 0) and are used to
calculate a mean GPA.
Is the interval from 3.0 to 4.0 really the same as
the interval from 1.0 to 2.0?
What is the underlying reality ranging from 0 to 4
that we are measuring?
Best to be conservative and limit statistical tests to
those for ordinal data.
 Level of Measurement
Ratio Measurement
Ratio data have all properties of nominal, ordinal
and interval data types and also possess a
meaningful zero (absence of quantity being
measured).
Because of this zero point, ratios of data values
are meaningful (e.g., $20 million profit is twice as
much as $10 million).
Zero does not have to be observable in the data,
it is an absolute reference point.
 Level of Measurement
Use the following procedure to
recognize data types:
Question If Yes

Q1. Is there a Ratio data (all statistical operations are

meaningful zero point? allowed)
Q2. Are intervals Interval data (common statistics allowed,
between scale points e.g., means and standard deviations)
meaningful?
Q3. Do scale points Ordinal data (restricted to certain types
represent rankings? of nonparametric statistical tests)
Q4. Are there discrete Nominal data (only counting allowed,
categories? e.g. finding the mode)
 Level of Measurement
Changing Data by Recoding
In order to simplify data or when exact data
magnitude is of little interest, ratio data can be
recoded downward into ordinal or nominal
measurements (but not conversely).
For example, recode systolic blood pressure as
normal (under 130), elevated (130 to 140), or
high (over 140).
The above recoded data are ordinal (ranking is
preserved) but intervals are unequal and some
information is lost.
 Time Series and Cross-sectional Data

Time Series Data

Each observation in the sample represents a
different equally spaced point in time (e.g., years,
months, days).
Periodicity may be annual, quarterly, monthly,
weekly, daily, hourly, etc.
We are interested in trends and patterns over time
(e.g., annual growth in
consumer debit card use
from 1999 to 2006).
 Time Series and Cross-sectional Data

Cross-sectional Data
Each observation represents a different individual
unit (e.g., person) at the same point in time
(e.g., monthly VISA balances).
We are interested in
- variation among observations or in
- relationships.
We can combine the two data types to get pooled
cross-sectional and time series data.
 Sampling Concepts
Sample or Census?
A sample involves looking only at some items
selected from the population.
A census is an examination of all items in a
defined population.
Why cant the United States Census survey every
person in the population?
- Mobility
- Illegal immigrants
- Budget constraints
- Incomplete responses or nonresponses
 Sampling Concepts
Situations Where A Sample May Be Preferred:

Infinite Population
No census is possible if the population is infinite or of indefinite size
(an assembly line can keep producing bolts, a doctor can keep
seeing more patients).
Destructive Testing
The act of sampling may destroy or devalue the item (measuring
battery life, testing auto crashworthiness, or testing aircraft turbofan
engine life).
Timely Results
Sampling may yield more timely results than a census (checking
wheat samples for moisture and protein content, checking peanut
butter for aflatoxin contamination).
 Sampling Concepts
Situations Where A Sample May Be Preferred:
Accuracy
Sample estimates can be more accurate than a census. Instead of
spreading limited resources thinly to attempt a census, our budget
of time and money might be better spent to hire experienced staff,
improve training of field interviewers, and improve data safeguards.
Cost
Even if it is feasible to take a census, the cost, either in time or
money, may exceed our budget.
Sensitive Information
Some kinds of information are better captured by a well-designed
sample, rather than attempting a census. Confidentiality may also
be improved in a carefully-done sample.
 Sampling Concepts
Situations Where A Census May Be Preferred

Small Population
If the population is small, there is little reason to sample, for the effort of
data collection may be only a small part of the total cost.
Large Sample Size
If the required sample size approaches the population size, we might as
well go ahead and take a census.
Database Exists
If the data are on disk we can examine 100% of the cases. But auditing or
validating data against physical records may raise the cost.
Legal Requirements
Banks must count all the cash in bank teller drawers at the end of each
business day. The U.S. Congress forbade sampling in the 2000 decennial
population census.
 Sampling Concepts
Parameters and Statistics
Statistics are computed from a sample of n items,
chosen from a population of N items.
Statistics can be used as estimates of parameters
found in the population.
Symbols are used to represent population
parameters and sample statistics.
 Sampling Concepts
Parameters and Statistics
Parameter or Statistic?
Parameter Any measurement that describes an entire population.
Usually, the parameter value is unknown since we
rarely can observe the entire population. Parameters
are often (but not always) represented by Greek
letters.
Statistic Any measurement computed from a sample. Usually,
the statistic is regarded as an estimate of a population
parameter. Sample statistics are often (but not
always) represented by Roman letters.
 Sampling Concepts
Parameters and Statistics
The population must be carefully specified and the
sample must be drawn scientifically so that the
sample is representative.
Target Population
The target population is the population we are
interested in (e.g., U.S. gasoline prices).
The sampling frame is the group from which we
take the sample (e.g., 115,000 stations).
The frame should not differ from the target
population.
 Sampling Concepts
Finite or Infinite?
A population is finite if it has a definite size, even if
its size is unknown.
A population is infinite if it is of arbitrarily large
size.
Rule of Thumb: A population may be treated as
infinite when N is at least 20 times n (i.e., when
N/n > 20)
N n
Here,
N/n > 20
 Sampling Methods
Probability Samples

Simple Random Use random numbers to select items

Sample from a list (e.g., VISA cardholders).
Systematic Sample Select every kth item from a list or
sequence (e.g., restaurant customers).
Stratified Sample Select randomly within defined strata
(e.g., by age, occupation, gender).
Cluster Sample Like stratified sampling except strata
are geographical areas (e.g., zip
codes).
 Sampling Methods
Nonprobability Samples
Judgment Use expert knowledge to choose
Sample typical items (e.g., which employees
to interview).

Convenience Use a sample that happens to be

Sample available (e.g., ask co-worker opinions
at lunch).
 Sampling Methods
Simple Random Sample
Every item in the population of N items has the
same chance of being chosen in the sample of n
items.

We rely on random
numbers to select a
name.
=RANDBETWEEN(1,48)
 Sampling Methods
Random Number Tables
A table of random digits used to select random
numbers between 1 and N.
Each digit 0 through 9 is equally likely to be
chosen.
Setting Up a Rule
For example, NilCo wants to award cash prizes to
10 of its 875 loyal customers.
To get 10 three-digit numbers between 001 and
875, we define any consistent rule for moving
through the random number table.
 Sampling Methods
Setting Up a Rule
Randomly point at the table to choose a starting
point.
Choose the first three digits of the selected five-
digit block, move to the right one column, down
one row, and repeat.
When we reach the end of a line, wrap around to
the other side of the table and continue.
Discard any number greater than 875 and any
duplicates.
Start Here Table of 1,000 Random Digits
82134 14458 66716 54269 31928 46241 03052 00260 32367 25783

07139 16829 76768 11913 42434 91961 92934 18229 15595 02566

45056 43939 31188 43272 11332 99494 19348 97076 95605 28010
10244 19093 51678 63463 85568 70034 82811 23261 48794 63984
12940 84434 50087 20189 58009 66972 05764 10421 36875 64964

84438 45828 40353 28925 11911 53502 24640 96880 93166 68409

98681 67871 71735 64113 90139 33466 65312 90655 75444 30845

43290 96753 18799 49713 39227 15955 46167 63853 03633 19990
96893 85410 88233 22094 30605 79024 01791 38839 85531 94576

75403 41227 00192 16814 47054 16814 81349 92264 01028 29071

78064 92111 51541 76563 69027 67718 06499 71938 17354 12680

26246 71746 94019 93165 96713 03316 75912 86209 12081 57817
98766 67312 96358 21351 86448 31828 86113 78868 67243 06763
37895 51055 11929 44443 15995 72935 99631 18190 85877 31309
27988 81163 52212 25102 61798 28670 01358 60354 74015 18556

19216 53008 44498 19262 12196 93947 90162 76337 12646 26838
28078 86729 69438 24235 35208 48957 53529 76297 41741 54735
34455 61363 93711 68038 75960 16327 95716 66964 28634 65015
53510 90412 70438 45932 57815 75144 52472 61817 41562 42084
30658 18894 88208 97867 30737 94985 18235 02178 39728 66398
 Sampling Methods
With or Without Replacement
If we allow duplicates when sampling, then we are
sampling with replacement.
Duplicates are unlikely when n is much smaller
than N.
If we do not allow duplicates when sampling, then
we are sampling without replacement.
 Sampling Methods
Computer Methods
Excel - Option A Enter the Excel function =RANDBETWEEN(1,875)
into 10 spread-sheet cells. Press F9 to get a new
sample.
Excel - Option B Enter the function =INT(1+875*RAND()) into 10
spreadsheet cells. Press F9 to get a new sample.
Internet The web site www.random.org will give you many
kinds of excellent random numbers (integers,
decimals, etc).
Minitab Use Minitabs Random Data menu with the Integer
option.
These are pseudo-random generators because even the best
algorithms eventually repeat themselves.
Using MINITAB to generate random numbers.
 Sampling Methods
Row Column Data Arrays
When the data are arranged in a rectangular array,
an item can be chosen at random by selecting a
row and column.

For example, in the 4 x 3 array, select a random

column between 1 and 3 and a random row
between 1 and 4.
This way, each item has an equal chance of being
selected.
 Sampling Methods
Row Column Data Arrays
Use =RANDBETWEEN function to choose row 3
and column 3 (Target).

Dillard's K-Mart Saks

Dollar General Kohl's Sears Roebuck
Federated Dept May Dept Stores Target
Stores
J. C Penney Nordstrom Wal-Mart Stores
 Sampling Methods
Randomizing a List
In Excel, use function =RAND() beside each row
to create a column of random numbers between
0 and 1.
Copy and paste these numbers into the same
column using Paste Special | Values (to paste
only the values and not the formulas).
Sort the spreadsheet on the random number
column.
 Sampling Methods
Randomizing a List
The first n items
are a random
sample of the
entire list (they
are as likely as
any others).
 Sampling Methods
Systematic Sampling
Sample by choosing every kth item from a list,
starting from a randomly chosen entry on the list.
For example, starting at item 2, we sample every
k = 4 items to obtain a sample of n = 20 items from
a list of N = 78 items.

Note that N/n = 78/20 4.

 Sampling Methods
Systematic Sampling
A systematic sample of n items from a population
of N items requires that periodicity k be
approximately N/n.
Systematic sampling should yield acceptable
results unless patterns in the population happen to
recur at periodicity k.
Can be used with unlistable or infinite populations.
Systematic samples are well-suited to linearly
organized physical populations.
 Sampling Methods
Systematic Sampling
For example, out of 501 companies, we want to
obtain a sample of 25. What should the periodicity
k be?
k = N/n = 501/25 20.

So, we should choose every 20th company from a

random starting point.
 Sampling Methods
Stratified Sampling
Utilizes prior information about the population.
Applicable when the population can be divided
into relatively homogeneous subgroups of known
size (strata).
A simple random sample of the desired size is
taken within each stratum.
For example, from a population containing 55%
males and 45% females, randomly sample 120
males and 80 females (n = 200).
 Sampling Methods
Stratified Sampling
Or, take a random sample of the entire population
and then combine individual strata estimates using
appropriate weights.
For a population with L strata, the population size
N is the sum of the stratum sizes:
N = N1 + N2 + ... + NL
The weight assigned to stratum j is
wj = Nj / n
For example, take a random sample of n = 200
and then weight the responses for males by
wM = .55 and for females by wF = .45.
 Sampling Methods
Cluster Sample
Strata consist of geographical regions.
One-stage cluster sampling sample consists of
all elements in each of k randomly chosen
subregions (clusters).
Two-stage cluster sampling, first choose k
subregions (clusters), then choose a random
sample of elements within each cluster.
 Sampling Methods
Cluster Sample

Here is an
example of 4
elements sampled
from each of 3
randomly chosen
clusters (two-stage
cluster sampling).
 Sampling Methods
Cluster Sample
Cluster sampling is useful when
- Population frame and stratum characteristics are
not readily available
- It is too expensive to obtain a simple or stratified
sample
- The cost of obtaining data increases sharply with
distance
- Some loss of reliability is acceptable
 Sampling Methods
Judgment Sample
A nonprobability sampling method that relies on
the expertise of the sampler to choose items that
are representative of the population.
Can be affected by subconscious bias (i.e.,
nonrandomness in the choice).
Quota sampling is a special kind of judgment
sampling, in which the interviewer chooses a
certain number of people in each category.
 Sampling Methods
Convenience Sample
Take advantage of whatever sample is available at
that moment. A quick way to sample.
Sample Size
Sample size depends on the inherent variability of
the quantity being measured and on the desired
precision of the estimate.
 Data Sources
Useful Data Sources
Type of Data Examples
U.S. general data Statistical Abstract of the U.S.
U.S. economic data Economic Report of the President
Almanacs World Almanac, Time Almanac
Periodicals Economist, Business Week, Fortune
Indexes New York Times, Wall Street Journal
Databases CompuStat, Citibase, U.S. Census
World data CIA World Factbook
Web Google, Yahoo, msn
 Survey Research
Basic Steps of Survey Research
Step 1: State the goals of the research

Step 2: Develop the budget (time, money, staff)

Step 3: Create a research design (target population,

frame, sample size)

Step 4: Choose a survey type and method of

administration
 Survey Research
Basic Steps of Survey Research
Step 5: Design a data collection instrument
(questionnaire)

Step 6: Pretest the survey instrument and revise as

needed

Step 7: Administer the survey (follow up if needed)

Step 8: Code the data and analyze it

 Survey Research
Survey Types
Type of Characteristics
Survey
Mail You need a well-targeted and current mailing list
(people move a lot). Low response rates are typical
and nonresponse bias is expected (nonrespondents
differ from those who respond). Zip code lists (often
costly) are an attractive option to define strata of
similar income, education, and attitudes. To
encourage participation, a cover letter should clearly
explain the uses to which the data will be put. Plan
for follow-up mailings.
 Survey Research
Survey Types
Type of Characteristics
Survey
Telephone Random dialing yields very low response and is
poorly targeted. Purchased phone lists help reach
the target population, though a low response rate
still is typical (disconnected phones, caller
screening, answering machines, work hours, no-
call lists). Other sources of nonresponse bias
include the growing number of non-English
speakers and distrust caused by scams and
spams.
 Survey Research
Survey Types
Type of Characteristics
Survey
Interviews Interviewing is expensive and time-consuming, yet
a trade-off between sample size for high-quality
results may still be worth it. Interviews must be
carefully handled so interviewers must be well-
trained an added cost. But you can obtain
information on complex or sensitive topics (e.g.,
gender discrimination in companies, birth control
practices, diet and exercise habits).
 Survey Research
Survey Types
Type of Characteristics
Survey
Web Web surveys are growing in popularity, but are
subject to nonresponse bias because those who
participate may differ from those who feel too busy,
dont own computers or distrust your motives
(scams and spam are again to blame). This type of
survey works best when targeted to a well-defined
interest group on a question of self-interest (e.g.,
views of CPAs on new proposed accounting rules,
frequent flyer views on airline security).
 Survey Research
Survey Types
Type of Characteristics
Survey
Direct This can be done in a controlled setting (e.g.,
Observation psychology lab) but requires informed consent,
which can change behavior. Unobtrusive
observation is possible in some nonlab settings
(e.g., what percentage of airline passengers carry
on more than two bags, what percentage of SUVs
carry no passengers, what percentage of drivers
wear seat belts).
 Survey Research
Survey Guidelines

Plan What is the purpose of the survey?

Consider staff expertise, needed skills,
degree of precision, budget.
Design Invest time and money in designing the
survey. Use books and references to
avoid unnecessary errors.
Quality Take care in preparing a quality survey
so that people will take you seriously.
 Survey Research
Survey Guidelines
Pilot Test Pretest on friends or co-workers to make
sure the survey is clear.
Buy-in Improve response rates by stating the
purpose of the survey, offering a token of
appreciation or paving the way with
endorsements.
Expertise Work with a consultant early on.
 Survey Research
Getting Advice
Consider hiring a consultant in the early stages.
Many resources are available to help
- The American Statistical Association

- The Research Industry Coalition

- The Council of American Survey Research Organizations

 Survey Research
Questionnaire Design
Use a lot of white space in layout.

Begin with short, clear instructions.

State the survey purpose.
Assure anonymity.
Instruct on how to submit the completed survey.
 Survey Research
Questionnaire Design
Break survey into naturally occurring sections.

Let respondents bypass sections that are not

applicable (e.g., if you answered no to question 7,
skip directly to Question 15).

Pretest and revise as needed.

Keep as short as possible.

 Survey Research
Questionnaire Design
Type of Question Example
Open-ended question Briefly describe your job goals.
Fill-in-the-blank How many times did you attend formal
religious services during the last year?
________ times
Check boxes Which of these statistics packages
have you ever used?
SAS Visual Statistics
SPSS MegaStat
Systat Minitab
 Survey Research
Questionnaire Design
Type of Question Example
Ranked choices Please evaluate your dining experience
Excellent Good Fair Poor
Food
Service
Ambiance
Cleanliness
Overall
 Survey Research
Questionnaire Design
Type of Question Example
Pictograms What do you think of the Presidents
economic policies? (circle one)

Likert scale Statistics is a difficult subject.

Neither
Strongly Slightly Agree Nor Slightly Strongly
Agree Agree Disagree Disagree Disagree

 Survey Research
Question Wording
The way a question is asked has a profound
influence on the response. For example,

1. Shall state taxes be cut?

2. Shall state taxes be cut, if it means
reducing highway maintenance?

3. Shall state taxes be cut, it is means firing

teachers and police?
 Survey Research
Question Wording
Make sure you have covered all the possibilities.
For example,
Are you married? Yes No

Overlapping classes or How old is your father?

unclear categories are a 35 45
problem. For example, 45 55
55 65
65 or older
 Survey Research
Coding and Data Screening
Responses are usually coded numerically
(e.g., 1 = male 2 = female).
Missing values are typically denoted by special
characters (e.g., blank, . or *).
Discard questionnaires that are flawed or missing
many responses.
Watch for multiple responses, outrageous or
inconsistent replies or range answers.
Follow-up if necessary and always document your
data-coding decisions.
 Survey Research
Sources of Error
Source of Error Characteristics
Nonresponse bias Respondents differ from nonrespondents
Selection bias Self-selected respondents are atypical
Response error Respondents give false information
Coverage error Incorrect specification of frame or
population
Interviewer error Responses influenced by interviewer
Measurement error Survey instrument wording is biased or
unclear
Sampling error Random and unavoidable
 Survey Research
Data File Format
Enter data into a spreadsheet or database as a
flat file (n subjects x m variables matrix).
 Survey Research
Advice on Copying Data
Using commas (,), dollar signs ($), or percents (%)
as part of the values may result in your data being
treated as text values.
A numerical variable may only contain the digits
0-9, a decimal point, and a minus sign.
To avoid round-off errors, format the data column
as plain numbers with the desired number of
decimal places before you copy the data to a
statistical package.
 Applied Statistics in
Business and Economics
End of Chapter 2