RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Variables
Type of study
Data collection techniques
sampling
Plan for data collection
Plan for data processing and analysis
ethical considerations
pretest or pilot study
 What is Variable ?
Variable is a characteristic of a person,
object or phenomenon that can take on
different values.
Classification on Variables

1. Quantitative variable (numerical variable)

2. Qualitative variable (categorical variable)
Scales of measurement

1. Nominal 2. Ordinal
3. Interval 4. Ratio
Dependent and independent variable

The variable that is used to describe or

measure the problem under study is called
the Dependent Variable.
The variables that are used to describe or
measure the factors that are assumed to
caused or at least to influence the problem
are called the Independent Variable.
 A variable that is associated with the problem
and with possible cause of the problem is a
potential Confounding variable.

A confounding variable may either strengthen

or weaken the apparent relationship between
the problem and possible cause.
 Cause Effect/outcome
(Independent variable) (Dependent variables)

Other factors
(confounding variables)
 EXAMPLE :
Independent variable : Mothers education

Dependent variable : Malnutrition

Confounding variable : Family income

 Example of a framework for defining variables
Conceptual definition Operational definition Scale of measurement
of variable I.e. indicator
1. Age Age at last birthday Continuous, in month
2. Hemoglobin level hemoglobin Continuous
concentration in (grams/100ml)
capillary blood,
measured by
hemoglobinometer

3. Nutritional status Weight in reltion to age Ordinal, e.g. well

compared to a standard nourished : > = 80% of
growth curve standard : moderately
malnourished : 60
-80% of standard;
severely
malnourished : 60% of
standard
4. Immunization Percentage of children
coverage immunized in a continuous, e.g.%, or
particular age group ordinal : high: >80%
Medium : 60 - 80%
 PROBLEM :
A health researcher believes the in a certain region
anemia, malaria and malnutrition are serious
problems among adult males and in particular, among
farmers. He wishes to study the prevalence of these
diseases among adult males of various ages,
occupations and educational backgrounds to
determine how serious a problem these diseases are
for this population.
QUESTIONS :
What are the dependent and independent
variable in the study ?
Which of thse are categorical and which are
numerical variables ?
 OVERVIEW OF STUDY TYPES
1. Non intervention studies :
Exploratory studies
Descriptive studies and
Comparative (analytical) studies
cross - sectional comparative studies
case - control studies
cohort studies
2. Intervention studies
Experimental studies and
Quasiexperimental studies
 An exploratory study is a small scale study of
relatively short duration, which is carried out
when little is known about a situation or a
problem.
A descriptive study involves the systematic
collection and presentation of a data to give a
clear picture of a particular situation.
An analytical study attempts to establish cause or
risk factors for certain problems. This is done by
comparing two or some group some of which
have or develop the problem and some of which
have not.
 Example (table 2 x 2) :
Disease
+ -

- A B A+ B
Exposure II
(risk factor)
+ C D C+ D

Total A+ C B+D N

III I

Note : 1. Cross - sectional sampling

2. Prospective sampling
3. Retrospective
 Diagram of an experimental study
Study population
(sampling)

Sample population
(randomization)

Study group Control (comparison

(experimental) group)

First data collection First data collection (same time

(before intervention) as in study group)

Intervention/ No Intervention/
manipulation manipulation

Last data collection (after Last data collection

intervention) (same time as in study group)
Compare
 Data analysis
Descriptive analysis
Inferential (analytic) analysis
non parametric statistic
parametric statistic

Statistical Descriptive :
Measure of central tendency : mean, median,
mode, geometric mean, harmonic mean
Measure of dispersion : standard deviation,
variance. Range, coefficient of variation
 DATA ANALYSIS
Univariable (only one dependent variable)
Bivariable
Multivariable (more than one independent
variable)
Multivariate (more than one dependent variable)
 Cross - tabulation of quantitative data

Different types of cross - tabulations :

1.Cross - tabulations to describe the sample
2.Cross - tabulations in which group are
compared to determine differences
3.Cross - tabulations that focus on exploring
relationships between variables
 EXAMPLE 1 :
Table : Residence and sex of doctors and nurses

Residence
Health Workers Total
Rural Urban
Doctors Males 8 (10%) 35 (21%) 43
Females 2 (3%) 16 (10%) 18
Nurses Males 46 (58%) 36 (22%) 82
Females 23 (29%) 77 (47%) 100
Total 79 (100%) 164 (100%) 243
 EXAMPLE 2 :
Table : Level of mothers nutritional knowledge for mothers with
severely malnourished and well Nourished children (12 - 35 months)

Level of mothers Nutritional status of their children

Nutritional knowledge Severely - Well -
malnourished nourished Total
(cases) (controls)

Low

Average

High

Total (100%) (100%)

 EXAMPLE 3 :
Table : Duration of breast - feeding in mothers of different age group

Duration of breast - feeding

Age (years)
0 - 5 months 6 - 11 months > 12 months Total

15 - 19 10 (%) 10 (%) 60 (%) 100

20 -24 20 20 80 150
25 - 29 30 30 70 150
30 - 34 45 45 60 175
35 - 39 100 100 40 200
>40 40 40 5 125
Total 245 340 315 900
Figure 1 : Master flowchart to determine which of the subsequent
flowcharts are applicable to a particular data set. The
numbers at the flowchart refer to subsequent flowcharts.
Figure 2 : Flowchart to select a univariable statistical procedure for a
continous dependent variable.
 1 2

1. The range is included here only because of its widespread use.

2. Statistical significance testing and calculation of confidence intervals are not
obtained for the interquartile range unless it is used to approximate the standard
deviation.
Figure 3 : Flowchart to select a univariable statistical procedure for an
ordinal dependent variable.
Figure 4 : Flowchart to select a univariable statistical procedure for a
nominal dependent variable.
Figure 5 : Flowchart to select a bivariable statistical procedure for a
continuous dependent variable.
Figure 6 : Flowchart to select a bivariable statistical procedure for an
ordinal dependent variable.
Figure 7 : Flowchart to select a bivariable statistical procedure for a
nominal dependent variable.
Figure 8 : Flowchart to select a multivariable statistical procedure for
a continuous dependent variable.
Figure 9 : Flowchart to select a multivariable statistical procedure for
an ordinal dependent variable.
Figure 10 : Flowchart to select a multivariable statistical procedure for
a nominal dependent variable.