CRYPTOGRAPHY

CONTENTS

Definition
Cryptography Issues
Cryptography Components
Cryptography Technique
Cryptography Categories
Symmetric key cryptography
Asymmetric key cryptography

Comparison of Symmetric and Asymmetric key cryptography

Famous Algorithms/Ciphers
DEFINITION
CRYPTOGRAPHY

A word with Greek origins, means secret writing.

The term to refer to the science and art of transforming messages to make
them secure and immune to attacks.
Applications of cryptography includes ATM cards, computer passwords, and
electronic commerce.

Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
CRYPTOGRAPHY ISSUES
CRYPTOGRAPHY ISSUES

Confidentiality: Only sender, intended receiver should understand message

contents.
End-Point Authentication: Sender and receiver want to confirm identity of each other.
Message Integrity: Sender and receiver want to ensure message not altered (in
transit, or afterwards) without detection.
Message Nonrepudiation: Message nonrepudiation means that a sender must not be
able to deny sending a message that he or she, in fact, did send.
Entity Authentication: In entity authentication (or user identification) the entity or user
is verified prior to access to the system resources
CRYPTOGRAPHY COMPONENTS
PLAINTEXT AND CIPHERTEXT

The original message, before being transformed, is called plaintext.

After the message is transformed, it is called ciphertext.
An encryption algorithm transforms the plaintext into ciphertext; a decryption
algorithm transforms the ciphertext back into plaintext.
Example:
Plaintext: HELLO
Ciphertext: KHOOR

Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
CIPHER

Encryption and Decryption algorithms are referred as ciphers.

Also used to refer to different categories of algorithms in cryptography.
Example (Traditional Substitution Ciphers):
Monoalphabetic cipher
Polyalphabetic cipher
Plaintext: HELLO
Ciphertext: ABNZF

Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
KEY

A key is a number (or a set of numbers) that the cipher operates on, as an
algorithm.
To encrypt a message, we need an encryption algorithm, an encryption key,
and the plaintext.
To decrypt a message, we need a decryption algorithm, a decryption key,
and the ciphertext. These reveal the original plaintext.
Types:
Shared key, Public key and Private key.

Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
USE OF KEY

Example:
Use Monoalphabetic Cipher to encrypt HELLO with key = 3.
Plaintext: HELLO
Ciphertext: KHOOR
ALICE, BOB, AND EVE

Alice is the person who needs to send secure data.

Bob is the recipient of the data.
Eve is the person who somehow disturbs the communication between Alice and
Bob.

Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
CRYPTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUE
 CRYPTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUE

Alices Bobs
Encryption Decryption
Key K1 Key K2
Plaintext Ciphertext Plaintext
Alice Bob

Eve

If m = Plaintext, then
Ciphertext = K1(m) and
m = K2(K1(m))
CRYPTOGRAPHY CATEGORIES
CRYPTOGRAPHY CATEGORIES

We can divide all the cryptography algorithms (ciphers) into two groups:
Symmetric key (also called secret-key) cryptography algorithms and
Asymmetric key (also called public-key) cryptography algorithms.

Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
SYMMETRIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY

In symmetric-key cryptography, the same key is used by both parties.

The sender uses this key and an encryption algorithm to encrypt data; the
receiver uses the same key and the corresponding decryption algorithm to
decrypt the data.

Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
 SYMMETRIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUE
Shared
Alices Secret Bobs
Encryption Key K Decryption
Key K Key K
Plaintext Ciphertext Plaintext
Alice Bob

If m = Plaintext and K is the shared secret key, then

Ciphertext = K(m) and
m = K(K(m))
SYMMETRIC KEY CIPHERS
Traditional Modern
Ciphers Ciphers

Substitution Transposition Simple Round

Ciphers Ciphers Ciphers Ciphers

Mono- XOR, Rotation, DES, AES, IDEA,

Poly-alphabetic S-box, P-box CAST, RC4,
alphabetic
Ciphers etc. RC5, etc.
Ciphers

Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
ASYMMETRIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY

In asymmetric or public-key cryptography, there are two keys: a private key and a
public key.
The private key is kept by the receiver.
The public key is announced to the public.

If Alice wants to send a message to Bob, Alice uses the public key to encrypt the
message. When the message is received by Bob, the private key is used to decrypt
the message.
Some of the asymmetric algorithms are:
Diffie-Hellman, RSA, El Gamal, Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), Man-in-the-Middle Attack
etc.

Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
 ASYMMETRIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY TECHNIQUE
Bobs
Used for encryption
Public To Public
Key K+

Bobs
Private Used for decryption
Key K-
Plaintext Ciphertext Plaintext
Alice Bob

If m = Plaintext, then
Ciphertext = K+(m) and
m = K-(K+(m))
COMPARISON OF SYMMETRIC AND ASYMMETRIC
KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY
SYMMETRIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY
Only 1 shared key is involved.
The same key encrypts and decrypts
the plaintext.
The shared key is kept secret
between Alice and Bob.
Examples of Symmetric algorithms:
DES, 3DES, AES, IDEA, BLOWFISH,
TWOFISH, RC4, RC5, SAFER etc.
ASYMMETRIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY
Here 2 keys : a private and a public
key are involved.
The Public key encrypts the plaintext
while the private key decrypts it.
The private key is just kept secret by
the Bob while the public key is made
public.
Examples of Asymmetric algorithms:
Diffie-Hellman, RSA, El Gamal, Elliptic
Curve Cryptography (ECC) etc.
FAMOUS ALGORITHMS/CIPHERS
MODERN ROUND CIPHERS

The ciphers of today are called round ciphers because they involve multiple rounds,
where each round is a complex cipher made up of the simple ciphers.
The key used in each round is a subset or variation of the general key called the
round key.
If the cipher has N rounds, a key generator produces N keys, K1, K2,...., KN, where
K1 is used in round 1, K2 in round 2, and so on.
Modem symmetric-key ciphers: DES and AES are referred to as block ciphers
because they divide the plaintext into blocks and use the same key to encrypt and
decrypt the blocks.

Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
DES - DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD

The algorithm encrypts a 64-bit plaintext block using a 64-bit key.

DES has two transposition blocks (P-boxes) and 16 complex round ciphers
(they are repeated).
Although the 16 iteration round ciphers are conceptually the same, each uses
a different key derived from the original key.
The initial and final permutations are keyless straight permutations that are
the inverse of each other. The permutation takes a 64-bit input and permutes
them according to predefined values.

Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
DES TECHNIQUE
64-Bit Plaintext
DES
Initial Permutation
K1
Round 1

Round 2
K2 Round
Key 64-Bit Key
Generator
K16
Round 16

Final Permutation

64-Bit Ciphertext
AES - ADVANCED ENCRYPTION STANDARD

The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) was designed because DES's key was too
small.
AES is designed with three key sizes: 128, 192, or 256 bits.
Table shows the relationship between the data block, number of rounds, and key size.
Size of Data Block Number of Rounds Key Size
10 128
128-Bits 12 192
14 256
The structure and operation of the other configurations are similar. The difference lies
in the key generation.
Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
AES TECHNIQUE
128-Bit Plaintext
AES
Pre Round K0
Each round of Transformation
AES, except for
the last, is a K1
Round 1 Cipher Key
cipher with four Round
operations that (128-bits for N =10,
K2 Key
are invertible. Round 2 Generator
192-bits for N =12 or
256-bits for N =14)
The last round
has only three
operations. Round N KN
(slightly different)

128-Bit Ciphertext
RSA ALGORITHM

It uses two numbers, e and d, having a special relationship to each other, as

the public and private keys.
Selecting Keys
Bob use the following steps to select the private and public keys:
1. Bob chooses two very large prime numbers p and q.
2. Bob multiplies the above two primes to find n, the modulus for encryption and
decryption. In other words, n = p X q.
3. Bob calculates another number = (p -1) X (q - 1).
4. Bob chooses a random integer e. He then calculates d so that d x e = 1 mod .
5. Bob announces e and n to the public; he keeps and d secret.
Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
RSA ALGORITHM

Encryption
Anyone who needs to send a message to Bob can use n and e.
For example, if Alice needs to send a message to Bob, she can change the message,
usually a short one, to an integer. This is the plaintext.
She then calculates the ciphertext, using e and n, as c = pe (mod n).
Alice sends C, the ciphertext, to Bob.
Decryption
When Bob receives the ciphertext, he uses his private key d to decrypt the message:
p = cd (mod n)
Ref: Ch.30, Data Communications and Networking, Fourth Edition by Behrouz A. Forouzan
CONCLUSION

By using of encryption techniques a fair unit of confidentiality, authentication,

integrity, access control and availability of data is maintained.
Using cryptography Electronic Mail Security, Mail Security, IP Security, Web
security can be achieved.
 REFERENCE
CHAPTER 30, CRYPTOGRAPHY

DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING

BY BEHROUZ A. FOROUZAN
THANK YOU
EXAMPLES
MONOALPHABETIC CIPHER

Use Monoalphabetic Cipher to encrypt HELLO with key = 3.

Key=3 means shift each character of plaintext by character at 3 places
ahead of it. Hence replacing H by K, E by H, L by O and O by R in the
plaintext.
Plaintext: HELLO
Ciphertext: KHOOR
POLYALPHABETIC CIPHER

Use Polyalphabetic Cipher to encrypt HELLO with key = 3,2.

Divide HELLO in group of 3 characters viz. HEL-LO and use key=3 to encrypt
HEL and key=2 to encrypt LO.
Plaintext: HELLO
Ciphertext: KHONB
TRANSPOSITION CIPHER

Encrypt the message "HELLO MY DEAR" using the key:

Plaintext: 1234
Ciphertext: 2413

In encryption, we move the character at position 2 to position 1, the character at

position 4 to position 2, and so on. We first remove the spaces in the message. We
then divide the text into blocks of four characters. We add a bogus character Z at
the end of the third block. The result is HELL OMYD EARZ. We create a three-block
ciphertext ELHLMDOYAZER.
Plaintext: HELLO MY DEAR
Ciphertext: ELHLMDOYAZER