Manufacturing Systems

1
 Manufacturing System
what is system.
A system has number of components,
combined together to achieve a goal.

Manufacturing is conversion of raw

material into final goods and services.

Any manufacturing organization can

also be called as a Production system.
Manufacturing System
There are 3 main components in a
manufacturing system.

Transformation
INPUT OUTPUT
Process
Manufacturing
Production System - Definition
Collection of people, equipment, and
procedures organized to accomplish the
manufacturing operations of a company.

Aim: identify and locate the most efficient method to

produce a product.
Objective: reduce time to market, increase quality,
reduce cost
Manufacturing Systems
Manufacturing Systems
Manufacturing Support Systems
Components of
Manufacturing System
1. Production Machines

2. Material Handling System

3. Computer Control System

4. Human Resources
1. Production Machines
In virtually all modern manufacturing
systems, most of the actual processing or
assembly work is accomplished by
machines or with the aid of tools
Classification of production machines:
1. Manually operated machines are controlled or
supervised by a human worker
2. Semi-automated machines perform a portion of
the work cycle under some form of program
control, and a worker tends the machine the
rest of the cycle
3. Fully automated machines operate for
extended periods of time with no human
attention
Manually Operated Machine

Manually operated machines are controlled or supervised by a human

worker. The machine provides the power for the operation and the
worker provides the control. The entire work cycle is operator
controlled.
 Semi-Automated Machine

A semi-automated machine performs a portion of the work cycle

under some form of program control, and a worker tends to the
machine for the remainder of the cycle. Typical worker tasks
include loading and unloading parts
Fully-Automated Machine

Machine operates for extended periods (longer than one

work cycle) without worker attention (periodic tending
may be needed).
2. Material Handling System
In most manufacturing systems that
process or assemble discrete parts and
products, the following material handling
functions must be provided:
1. Loading work units at each station
2. Positioning work units at each station
3. Unloading work units at each station
4. Transporting work units between stations in
multi-station systems
5. Temporary storage of work units
Work Transport Between
Stations
Two general categories of work
transport in multi-station
manufacturing systems:
1. Fixed routing
Work units always flow through the same
sequence of workstations
Most production lines exemplify this
category
2. Variable routing
Work units are moved through a variety of
different station sequences
Most job shops exemplify this category
 (a) Fixed Routing and
(b) Variable Routing
 3. Computer Control System
Typical computer functions in a manufacturing
system:
Communicate instructions to workers (receive
processing or assembly instructions for the specific
work unit)
Download part programs to computer-controlled
machines
Control material handling system
Schedule production
Failure diagnosis when malfunctions occur and
preventive maintenance
Safety monitoring (protect both the human worker
and equipment)
Quality control (detect and reject defective work
units produced by the system)
4. Human Resource
In manufacturing systems, humans perform some
or all of the value added work that is
accomplished on the parts or products

These human workers are called labor

Human workers are also needed for automated

manufacturing systems to manage or support the
system as computer programmers and operators
in the case of CNC machines.
 TYPES OF MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS

CONTINUOUS INTERMITTEN
PRODUCTION T PRODUTION

MASS PROCESS JOB BATCH

PRODUCTION ASSEMBLY PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION PRODUCTION
PRODUCTION
CONTINUOUS PRODUCTION SYSTEM
1. Mass production system
Only one type of product or maximum of two or three
manufacture in large quantities
Example
Electronics,automobiles,food industries
 2. PROCESS PRODUCTION

--WHEN THE DEMAND IS CONTINUOUS AND HIGH

--Single raw material can be transformed in to different
products Example
Food and Beverage
Paints and coatings
Chemicals Products
Bulk-drug pharmaceuticals
3. Assembly production
Two or more components are combined
Developed in the automobile industry in U.S.A
Employ assembly lines
Intermittent production system
Types of intermittent production

Job production
The product manufactured is non standardised
Machines are arranged at one place
Volume of output is generally small

Batch production
A large variety of products are manufactured in batches
Both general purpose and special purpose machines are used
Machines and equipments are arranged according to the
sequence of operations
Intermittent versus continuous production
Manufacturing Systems
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Challenges in Manufacturing

Manufacturing industries strive to reduce the cost of the

product continuously to remain competitive in the face of
global competition.
ssification of Manufacturing Syst
Factors in Manufacturing Systems
Classification Scheme

Type of operations performed

Number of workstations
System layout
Automation and manning level
Part or product variety

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ssification of Manufacturing Syst
Types of Operations Performed
Processing operations on individual
work units
Assembly operations to combine
individual units into assembled
entities.

Additional parameters:
Type of material processed affect the
type of equipment and handling
method.
Size and weight of the part or product
has an effect on safety hazards
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ssification of Manufacturing Syst
Number of Workstations
As the number of stations increases,
the amount of work that can be
accomplished by the system increases.
More stations also mean the system is
more complex and therefore more
difficult to manage and maintain. The
system consists of more workers,
machines and parts being handled. The
material handling system is more
complex in a multi station system as n
increases. Reliability and maintenance
problems occur more frequently.40
ssification of Manufacturing Syst
Number of Workstations
Convenient measure of the size of the
system
Let n = number of workstations
Individual workstations can be identified
by subscript i, where i = 1, 2,...,n
Affects performance factors such as
workload capacity, production rate, and
reliability
As n increases, this usually means greater
workload capacity and higher production
rate
There must be a synergistic effect that
derives from n multiple stations
41 working
ssification of Manufacturing Syst
System Layout
An important factor in determining the
most appropriate material handling
system.
Applies mainly to multi-station
systems
n = 1, single station cell
n >= 2, multi station system
Fixed routing vs. variable routing
In systems with fixed routing,
workstations are usually arranged
linearly 42
ssification of Manufacturing Syst
Automation and Manning Levels
Level of workstation automation
Manually operated
Semi-automated
Fully automated
Manning level
Mi = proportion of time worker in
attendance at station i
Mi = 1 means that one worker must be at
the station continuously
Mi 1 indicates manual operations
Mi< 1 usually denotes some form of
automation 43
ssification of Manufacturing Syst
Automation and Manning Levels

Utility Workers not specifically

assigned to individual processing or
assembly stations. They perform
functions such as
1. Relieving workers at stations for
personal breaks
2. Maintenance and repair of the system
3. Material handling and
4. Tool changing
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ssification of Manufacturing Syst
Part or Product Variety
The degree to which the system is capable
of dealing with variations in the parts or
products it produces
Possible Variations:
Variations in type and/or color of plastic of
molded parts in injection molding.
Variations in electronic components placed
on a standard size printed circuit board
Variations in the size of printed circuit
boards handled bu a component placement
machine
Variations in geometry of machined parts
Variations in parts and options 45
in an
ssification of Manufacturing Syst
Part or Product Variety
Three cases:
1. Single-model case - all parts or products
are identical (sufficient demand/fixed
automation)
2. Batch-model case - different parts or
products are produced by the system, but
they are produced in batches because
changeovers are required (hard product
variety)
3. Mixed-model case - different parts or
products are produced by the system, but
the system can handle the differences
without the need for time-consuming
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changes in setup (soft product variety)
ssification of Manufacturing Syst
Part or Product Variety

(a) Single-model case, (b) batch model case, and (c) mixed-model case

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urrent Trends In Manufacturing Engineering
Group Technology
Design for Manufacturing and Assembly
Computer Aided Process Planning
Total Quality Approach
Concurrent Engineering
Computer Integrated Manufacturing
Numerically Controlled Production Process
 Group Technology
Group technology is a manufacturing philosophy in which similar parts
are identified and grouped together to take advantage of their
similarities in design and production.

Similar parts are arranged into part families. where each part family
possesses similar design and/or manufacturing characteristics.

The improvement is typically achieved by organizing the production

facilities into manufacturing cells that specialize in production of
certain part families.

Grouping the production equipment into machine cells, where each cell
specializes in the production of a part family is called cellular
manufacturing.

Parts in the medium production quantity range are usually made in

batches.

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 Disadvantages of batch production:
Downtime for changeovers
High inventory carrying costs

GT minimizes these disadvantages by recognizing that although the

parts are different, there are groups of parts that possess similarities.
When to Use GT and Cellular Manufacturing

1. The plant currently uses traditional batch production and a

process type layout:

This results in much material handling effort, high in process

inventory, and long manufacturing lead times.

2. The parts can be grouped into part families:

Each machine cell is designed to produce a given part family, or a

limited collection of part families, so it must be possible to group
parts made in the plant into families.
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 Problems in Implementing GT

1. Identifying the part families

Reviewing all of the parts made in the plant and grouping them
into part families is a substantial task

2. Rearranging production machines into GT cells

It is time-consuming and costly to physically rearrange the
machines into cells, and the machines are not producing during the
changeover

Part Family
A collection of parts that possess similarities in geometric shape
and size, or in the processing steps used in their manufacture
Two categories of part similarities can be distinguished:

(1) design attributes, which are concerned with part characteristics

such as geometry, size, and material
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 (2) manufacturing attributes, which consider the sequence of processing
steps required to make a part.

(3) Both design and manufacturing attributes

Ten parts are different in size, shape, and material, but quite similar in terms
of manufacturing

All parts are machined from cylindrical stock by turning; some parts require
52 drilling and/or milling
 Traditional Process Layout

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 Cellular Layout Based on GT
Each cell specializes in producing one or a limited number of
part families

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 Ways to Identify Part Families
1. Visual inspection

Using best judgment to group parts into appropriate families, based

on the parts or photos of the parts

2. Parts classification and coding

Identifying similarities and differences among parts and relating

them by means of a coding scheme

3. Production flow analysis

Using information contained on route sheets to classify parts

Parts Classification and Coding
Identification of similarities among parts and relating the
similarities by means of a numerical coding system
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 Parts Classification and Coding
Identification of similarities among parts and relating the
similarities by means of a numerical coding system
Most time consuming of the three methods,
Must be customized for a given company or industry,
Reasons for using a coding scheme:
Design retrieval,
A designer faced with the task of developing a new
part can use a design retrieval system to determine if
a similar part already exists.
Simply changing an existing part would take much
less time than designing a whole new part from
scratch.
 Parts Classification and Coding
Automated process planning,
The part code for a new part can be used to search for process
plans for existing parts with identical or similar codes.
Machine cell design.
The part codes can be used to design machine cells capable of
producing all members of a particular part family, using the composite
part concept
Features of Parts Classification and Coding
Systems

Most classification and coding systems are

based on one of the following:
Part design attributes
Part manufacturing attributes,
Both design and manufacturing attributes
Features of Parts Classification and Coding
Systems
 Coding Scheme Structures

1. Hierarchical structure (monocode)

Interpretation of each successive digit depends on the value of

the preceding digit

2. Chain-type structure (polycode)

Interpretation of each symbol is always the same

No dependence on previous digits

3. Mixed-code structure

Combination of hierarchical and chain-type structures

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 Opitz Classification System
The Opitz coding scheme uses the following digit sequence:

12345 6789 ABCD

The first five digits, 12345, are called the form code.
It describes the primary design attributes of the part, such as
external shape (e.g., rotational vs. rectangular) and machined
features (e.g., holes, threads, gear teeth, etc.

The next four digits, 6789are called supplementary code.

It describes some of the attributes that would be of use in
manufacturing (e.g., dimensions, work material, starting shape,
and accuracy).

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 The extra four digits, ABCD, are referred to as the secondary
code
It is intended to identify the production operation type and
sequence.

The secondary code can be designed by the user firm to serve its
own particular needs.

Second type of coding is MULTY CLASS CODING it is 18

digit

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63 OPTIZ
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 Flow

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 Production flow analysis (PFA)

Production flow analysis (PFA) is a method for identifying part

families and associated machine groupings that uses the
information contained on production route sheets rather than on
part drawings.

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 Problems from M.P. Groover book on

1.Rank Order Clustering Technique

2. Group Technology Machine Sequence using Hollier Method 1 and 2

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 1. In each row of the matrix. read the series of ls and G's (blank entries = D's) from
left to fight as a binary number. Rank the rows in 01 del uf decreasing value. In
case of a tie, rank the rows in the same order as they appear in the current matrix

2. Numbering from top to bottom, is the current order of rows the same as the rank
order
determined in the previous step? If yes, go to step 7, If no, go to the following step.
3, Reorder the rows in the part-machine incidence matrix by listing them in
decreasing
rank order, starting from the top
4. In each column ot tbe matrix. read the series of I 's and O's (blank entries = (j's)
from
top to bottom as a binary number. Rank the columns in order of decreasing value, In
case of a tie. rank the columns in the same order as they appear in the current
matrix.
5. Numbering Irom left to right, is the current order of columns the same as the rank
order determined in the previous step? If yes. go to step 7. If no.go to the following
step.
6. Reorder the columns in the part-machine incidence matrix by li~ling them in
decreasing
rank order, starting with the left column. Go to step I.
7 Stop
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 Benefits of Group Technology in Manufacturing

Standardization of tooling, fixtures, and setups is encouraged.

Material handling is reduced.
Parts are moved within a machine cell rather than the entire factory.
Process planning and production scheduling are simplified.
Work-in-process and manufacturing lead time are reduced.
Improved worker satisfaction in a GT cell
Higher quality work

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 Flexible Manufacturing System
A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a form of flexible automation
in which several machine tools are linked together by a material-
handling system, and all aspects of the system are controlled by a
central computer.

FMS technology can be applied in situations similar to those identified

for group technology and cellular manufacturing; specifically,

Presently, the plant either (1) produces parts in batches or (2) uses
manned GT cells and management wants to automate .

The parts or products made by the facility are in the mid-volume,

mid-variety production range.

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Components of FMS Systems
Robotics
Material Handling / Transport
Machines
Manual / Automated Assembly Cells
Computers
Controllers
Software
Networks

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 What are The Features of FMS?
An FMS is distinguished from an automated production line by its ability
to process more than one product style simultaneously.

At any moment, each machine in the system may be processing a

different part type.

FMS can let us make changes in production schedule in order to meet

the demands on different products.
Distinguishing Characteristics:
An automatic materials handling subsystem links machines in the system

and provides for automatic interchange of work pieces in each machine

Automatic continuous cycling of individual machines

Complete control of the manufacturing system by the host computer

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Lightly manned, or possibly unmanned
Benefits of FMS
FMS systems are intended to solve
the following problems:
Reduced work in process
Increased machine utilization
Better management control
Reduced direct and indirect labor
Reduced manufacturing lead-time
Consistent and better quality
Reduced inventory

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 LAYOUT CONFIGURATIONS OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM

Flexible manufacturing system brings rewards in actual manufacture of products as

the process is designed for several products to be run on different machines.

Line layout
An Automated guided vehicle is most efficient when the movement is in straight-
lines along the AGV path in a single-row machine layout.

Machines are arranged only on one side of AGV path and in double row machine
layout, machines are arranged on both sides.

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 Loop layout
The loop layout uses conveyor systems that allow unidirectional flow of parts
around the loop.

A secondary material handling system is provided at a workstation which permits

the flow of parts without any
obstruction.

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 Ladder type layout
Ladder type layout consists of rungs on which workstations are located. This
reduces the average travel distance thereby reducing the transfer time between
workstations.

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 Carousel layout
In the Carousel layout configuration, parts flow in one direction around the loop.
The load, unload stations are placed at one end of loop

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 Robot centered cell

If a handling robot is used in a Flexible manufacturing system cell , the machines

are laid out in a circle, such a layout is called circular layout.

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 Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM)
CIM is the manufacturing approach of using computers to control the entire
production process.

The integration allows individual processes to exchange information with each

other and initiate actions.

Through the integration of computers, manufacturing can be faster and less error-
prone, although the main advantage is the ability to create automated
manufacturing processes.

Typically CIM relies on closed-loop control processes, based on real-time input

from sensors.

CIM is a management philosophy in which the functions of

design and manufacturing are rationalized and coordinated
using computer, communication and information
technologies.
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 In a CIM system functional areas such as design, analysis, planning,
purchasing, cost accounting, inventory control, and distribution are linked
through the computer with factory floor functions such as materials handling and
management, providing direct control and monitoring of all the operations.

Some factors involved when considering a CIM implementation are the

production volume, the experience of the company or personnel to make the
integration, the level of the integration into the product itself and the integration
of the production processes.

CIMS Benefits:
Increased machine utilization
Reduced direct and indirect labour
Reduce mfg. lead time
Lower in process inventory
Scheduling flexibility.
CIM represents a new production approach that will allow the
factories to deliver a high variety of products at a low cost and with
short production cycles.
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Historical overview

Historical Development
15th century Machining Metal
18th century - Industrialization, production type machine tools
20th century - F.W. Taylor
tool metal, HSS
Automated production equipment
Screw machines
Transfer lines
Assembly lines
------
using cams and preset shops
Programmable automation
NC
PLC
Robots

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 Introductory concepts

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 Introductory concepts

THOSE USING THOSE USING THOSE USING

SINGLE POINT MULTI POINT ABRASIVE
TOOLS TOOLS TOOLS
lathes drilling machines grinding machines
shapers milling machines honing machines
planers broaching machines etc.
boring machines hobbing machines
etc. etc.

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 Introductory concepts

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 Computer Control of
Manufacturing Systems
NUMERICAL CONTROL (NC)
A form of programmable automation
Numbers, letters, and symbols are coded to define a
program of instructions for a particular work part or job.
Two categories of numerical control applications:
Machine tool applications (drilling, milling, etc.)
Non-machine tool applications (assembly, drafting, etc.)

Basic Components of NC
1. Program of instructions
2. Machine control unit
3. Processing equipment
Drive system
Machine tool
Feedback system

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Computer Control of Manufacturing Systems

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flexo writer
 Introductory concepts

The number of pulses transmitted to each axis

determines the incremental axis position, and the

frequency of these pulses regulates the axis speed.
Miscellaneous control functions are a set of on/off

signals to implement the control of the speed and

direction of the spindle rotation, control of
coolant supply, selection of cutting tool,
automatic clamping and unclamping, etc.
NC is often referred to as the older generation of

numerical control technology. NC systems are

hard-wired controls in which most functions are
implemented by electronic hardware based upon
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digital circuit technology.
Introductory concepts

Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

Computer numerical control (CNC) is the numerical control system
in which a dedicated, stored program computer is built into the
control to perform basic and advanced NC functions.

CNC controls are also referred to as soft-wired NC systems

because most of their control functions are implemented by
the control software programs.

The control signals in CNC systems are in the form of binary

words. Each word contains a fixed number of bits, 32 bits or 64 bits
are commonly used. Each bit of data produces one BLU motion in the
controlled axis.

Theoretically a 32-bit word could represent one of up to 232 =

4,294,967,296 different axial positions. If the system resolution is,
for example, BLU = 0.0001 in., this number can represent up to
429,969 in. possible motions, which is more than enough for all types
of applications

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CNC Machines
What is a CNC Machine?
Numerical Control Machines.
Programs are input thru input devices like tape or punched
cards.
NC machines control only the position of job relative to
cutting tool.
Feed rate, speed and tools will be selected by the operator.
The instruction from the Tape will be converted into
machine movement by MCU units.
 Basic components of CNC Machine
Program of instructions is detailed step by step command to
that direct the processing unit.
Machine Control Unit (MCU) is the brain of the NC machine.
Machine Tools or Processing equipment which performs
useful work
106
1. Program of instructions: Detailed step-by-step
commands that direct the processing equipment.
The most common medium on which the program is
submitted to the machine control unit has been 1-in.-
wide punched tape. More recently, magnetic tape
cassettes and floppy diskettes and computer via
RS-232-C communication are used.

2. Machine Control Unit (MCU): Electronics and

control hardware that read and interpret the
program of instruction and convert it into
mechanical actions of the mach. Tool or other
processing equipment.
Implement interpolations (linear, circular, and
helical) to generate axis motion commands
Feed axis motion commands to the amplifier
circuits for driving the axis mechanisms
Receive the feedback signals of position and
speed for each drive axis
Implement auxiliary control functions such as
The MCU and other Components of the NC System
Drive System
A drive system consists of amplifier circuits, drive
motors, and ball lead-screws. The MCU feeds control
signals (position and speed) of each axis to the amplifier
circuits. The control signals are augmented to actuate
drive motors which in turn rotate the ball lead-screws to
position the machine table.
Machine Tool
CNC controls are used to control various types of
machine tools. Regardless of which type of machine tool
is controlled, it always has a slide table and a spindle
to control of position and speed. The machine table
is controlled in the X and Y axes, while the spindle runs
along the Z axis.
Feedback System
The feedback system is also referred to as the
measuring system. It uses position and speed
transducers 108
to continuously monitor the position
at which the cutting tool is located at any
TYPES OF CNC MACHINE
CNC Machining Centers
CNC Turning Centers
CNC Drilling Machines
EDM Sinker and wire cut Machines
Flame and Laser-Cutting Machines
Water Jet Profilers
CNC Boring machines
CNC Punching machines
CNC Grinding machines
CNC Welding machines
CNC Bending machines
Basic principle of CNC
Each axis consists of a mechanical component,
such as a slide that moves, a servo drive motor
that powers the mechanical movement, and a
ball screw to transfer the power from the servo
drive motor to the mechanical component.
These components, along with the computer
controls that govern them, are referred to as an
axis drive system.
Additionally, a CNC axis may be either a linear
axis in which movement is in a straight line, or
a rotary axis with motion following a circular
path.
 Advantages of NC with Small Lot Sizes
1. Reduced non-production time
2. Reduced fixturing
3. Reduced lead time
4. Greater manufacturing flexibility
5. Easier to accommodate engineering design changes on the work piece
6. Improved accuracy and reduced human error.

NC is most appropriate for the following conditions

1. Frequently processed parts with small to medium lot sizes
2. Complex part geometry
3. Close tolerances
4. Need of much metal removal
5. 100% inspection required parts
6. Expensive parts where processing mistakes are costly
7. Need of many operations on the part
8. Likely engineering design changes
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 Introductory concepts
Advantages and Limitations of CNC
The main advantages of using CNC technology are to reduce product cost,
improve product quality, and facilitate production planning and control.
These benefits can be realized through these nine causes:
Advantages Limitations
Increased productivity
Reduced production costs
Facilitation of complex
machining operations
Improved production planning high initial investment
and control high maintenance
Facilitation of flexible
automation requirement, and
High accuracy and repeatability not cost-effective for low
Reduced indirect operating productions runs
costs
Greater flexibility
Lower operator skill requirement

112 FMS(TGS)
 CNC Dual turret center
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FM 114
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FM
CNC vertical Milling Machine
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 Double axis machining center
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 Coordinate System and Machine
Motions
Coordinate System -I
The purpose is to provide a means of locating the tool
in relation to the work piece.
Numerical control coordinate system is defined
with respect to the machine tool table.
Depending on the type of NC machine, the part
programmer may have several options for
specifying the location. One of these options:
1. *Fixed zero: the origin is always located at the
same position on the machine table. All locations
must be defined by x and y coordinates relative to that
fixed origin.
*Floating zero: Modern NC machines allow the
machine operator to set the zero point at any
position on the machine table.
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 Coordinate System -II
2. *Absolute Positioning: The tool locations are
always defined in relation to the zero point.
*Incremental Positioning: The next tool location
must be defined with reference to the previous
tool location.

Machine Axes Designation & Direction

The EIA-267-B standard specifies fourteen axes for
describing the linear and rotary motions of CNC
machines. This includes nine linear axes and five
rotary axes. The nine linear axes are further divided into
the following three groups: (see figure below)
Primary linear axes (X,Y, and Z)
Secondary linear axes (U, V, and W)
Tertiary linear axes (P, Q, and R)

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 The primary axes (X, Y, and Z) are assigned to the primary
slide table. The secondary linear axes (U, V, and W) are
added to the primary axes for defining the movement of
the second moving slide or spindle. Similarly, the tertiary
linear axes (P, Q, and R) are used to represent the linear
motion of the third slide or spindle.
The five rotary axes consist of three primary rotary
axes (A, B, and C) and two special axes (D and E) (right
figure). Their definitions are:

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 Machine Axes Designation
Machine axes are designated according to the
"right-hand rule". When the thumb of right hand
points in the direction of the positive X axis, the
index finger points toward the positive Y axis, and
the middle finger toward the positive Z aixs. The
left figure shows the right-hand rule applied to vertical
machines, while the right figure applies to horizontal
machines.

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 Direction of Machine Axes

Direction of Machine Axes

CNC controls use the positive (+) and negative (-) sign to
indicate the motion direction of the machine axes. This is how
we define the directions.
+Z direction: is the direction which increases the distance between
the workpiece and the cutting tool.
-Z direction: is in the opposite direction of +Z.
+X direction: (a) In vertical machines, it is the direction to the right
when observed from the spindle toward its supporting column.
(b) In horizontal machines, it is pointed to the right when viewed
from the spindle axis toward the workpiece.
-X direction: is in the opposite direction of +X.
+Y direction: follows the right-hand rule: when the thumb points
toward the +X axis and the middle finger is directed toward the +Z
axis, the index finger points in the direction of the +Y axis.
-Y direction: is in the opposite direction of +Y.

FM 121
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Reference Zero Points
Reference zero points are the base or starting points
that are chosen as the reference for calculating
the coordinates of the other points. Also, reference
zero points are called the zero points. CNC controls use
the following four types of reference zero points to
facilitate the programming of tool paths:
Machine zero point
Reference return point
Work zero point
Program zero point
Machine Zero Point
The machine zero point is the origin of the machine
coordinate system.
It is set by the machine tool manufacturer and can not
be changed.
The machine zero is labeled with an M and represented
122
by this symbol:
 For turning machines, the machine zero is normally located at
the center of the spindle end face (left figure). In milling
machines, the machine zero is usually at the extreme limit of
each axis travel (right figure).
Normally the machine zero is not directly used as the
reference point for writing part programs. It may be used in
one of the following three applications:
1. Initial setup of the machine
2. As the reference point for other reference points such
as reference return points, work zeros, and program
zeros
3. As the tool change position

FM 123
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 Reference Return Point
Reference return points are the locations to which the
machine table or the spindle is returned. They are
identified by the letter R and are represented by the symbol

Some CNC controls allow defining up to four reference return

points. Normally, the machine zero is set to be the first
reference return point in milling machines [(Figure below (left)].
The second, third, and fourth reference return points are
specified by setting their parameter values. They can be set at
any convenient location within the work envelope. In turning
machines, the reference return point is located in the extreme
end of the work envelope [Figure below (right)]

The location of the first reference return point is precisely

predetermined in each moving axis in relation to the
machine zero point. Because of this, it can be used for
calibrating and regulating the measuring system of the
slide table and spindle.

FM 124
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 Specifically, the reference point is used in four situations
1. When the control is powered up, all axes always must be positioned at
the reference return point to calibrate the measuring system.
2. The machine must be re-positioned to the reference return point for
reestablishing the proper coordinate values in situations such as
losing the current position data due to electrical failure or
improper operation.
3. All axes must be retracted to the reference point before the tool
change can take place.
4. At the end of the part program, all axes must be retracted to the
reference return point to reset the control system for re-running the
part program or running a new part program.

FM 125
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 Work Zero Point
Work Zero Point
A work zero point is the origin of the workpiece's
coordinate system.
It is used to determine the work's coordinate system in
relation to the machine zero point.
The work's zero points are often referred to as setup
points because they are the locations for setting up the
workpiece on the machine table.
Some CNC controls allow the use of multiple work zero
points in one machine setup or operation. The work zero
point is labeled by W and represented by the symbol
The work zero point can be chosen by the programmer
at any convenient location within the working envelope
of the machine. It is recommended that you place the
work zero point in a way that it can be easily located and
measured on the workpiece.
FM 126
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 Work zero point
two common methods of choosing the work zero point for
turnings (top figure) and the bottom figure shows milling
examples.

FM 127
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 Types of NC Systems

TYPES OF NC SYSTEMS
1. Point-to-point: The objective is to move the cutting tool
to a predefined location. Once the tool reaches the desired
location, the machining operation is performed at that
location.
2. Straight cut: Capable of moving the cutting tool parallel
to one of the major axes. Workpieces of rectangular
configurations may be fabricated. Angular cuts are not
possible.
3. Contouring: The most complex, the most flexible, and
the most expensive type of machine tool control. Capable
of performing both PTP and straight-cut operations. In
addition, simultaneous control of more than one axis
movement of the machine tool. Straight or plane surfaces
at any orientation, circular paths, conical shapes, most any
other mathematically definable form are possible.
FM 128
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 Position and Motion Control in an NC System
The data read into the MCU define machine
table positions.
Each axis is equipped with a drive unit which
is connected to the table by means of a lead
screw.
The axis positioning system may be designed
as either an open-loop or a closed-loop
system.

FM 129
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 CNC Drive Systems
CNC Drive Systems
The CNC drive systems can be either
open loop or closed loop type. The
main difference between the two systems
depends on whether the system has a
feedback loop to insure the accuracy of
system performance.

Open-loop NC systems make use of stepping

motors. 360

ns drives the
ns Each pulse generated my MCU

stepping motor by a fraction of one
FM
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step angle.
GS)
 P= number of pulses received by the motor
fp= pulse rate (frequency of the pulse train)
t= duration of the pulse train
S= rotational speed of the stepping motor
60 f p
angle of rotation=P S
ns
angle of rotation=fpt

By controlling the number of pulses to the

motor the position of the table is controlled
without feedback sensors.
Stepping motors are used on NC systems
FM where the 131
load is relatively small.
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 CNC Drive Systems

Open Loop System

No feedback loop is used in open loop drive
systems.
The drive motor acts upon the control
commands from the machine control unit
(MCU).
The system simply assumes the machine
table will reach the target position.
There is no way for the MCU to know the
actual performance of the system.
An open loop system is very sensitive to
the load resistance.
FM Position and
132 velocity error may occur when
S(T
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 CNC Drive Systems

Open loop drives are typically used in PTP systems in which

the cutting tool does not engage with the work piece during
positioning. They can also be used in light-loaded cutting
machines. Open loop systems are less expensive, but they
are prone to load resistances during machining.

FM 133
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 A closed-loop system uses position sensors to
measure the table position relative to the input value
for the axis.
Generally uses dc servomotor or hydraulic actuator.
Various feedback sensor devices are used. Ex. Optical
encoder.
Optical encoder consists of a light source, a
photodetector,, and a disk which is connected to the
rotating shaft whose angular position is to be measured.
As the disk rotates, the openings on the disk cause the
light source to be seen as a series of flashes.
The photodetector emits an electrical signal equal to
the number flashes which are counted by the MCU.
= angle between the openings in the disk
Nd= number of openings in the encoder disk 360
angle of rotation= P ns

FM 134
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 Pulses generated by the optical encoder is
compared with the input position command
The error is used to control a dc servo motor, which
in turn drives the machine table.
Closed-loop NC systems are more appropriate for
processes that generate a significant load during
operation. Ex: milling, turning.
Accuracy:
A measure of the control systems capacity to
position the machine table at a desired location .
Related to the control resolution of an NC system.
Control resolution is the capability of the MCU to
divide the range of a given axis movement in to
closely spaced points. It is the distance between
adjacent control points.

FM 135
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 CNC Drive Systems

Closed Loop System

With closed loop drive systems, feedback sub-systems
are used to monitor the actual output and correct any
discrepancy between desired and actual system
performance. Feedback sub-systems may be either an
analog or digital type. Analog systems measure the
variation of physical systems such as position and
velocity in voltage level. Tachometers are typically used
to measure the velocity, while resolvers for position.
There are two feedback loops in CNC drive systems:
position loop and velocity loop.
The position loop is the outer loop that consists of a
comparator, an amplifier circuit, a velocity loop, a
resolver, and a resolver interface.

FM 136
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 n= number of bits for an axis
number of control points= 2n
range of axis movement
CR
2n
CR
accuracy 3 (std. dev. of mech. error)
2

Repeatability:
Ability of the control system to return to a
given location that was previously
programmed into the controller. repeatability
errors are
repeatabil ity caused
3 (std. dev.
byofmechanical
mech. error) errors.
6 (std. dev. of mech. error)
FM 137
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CNC Machines
What is a CNC Machine?
Numerical Control Machines.
Programs are input thru input devices like tape or punched
cards.
NC machines control only the position of job relative to
cutting tool.
Feed rate, speed and tools will be selected by the operator.
The instruction from the Tape will be converted into
machine movement by MCU units.
Categories of CNC M/c
NC applications have two categories
1. Machine tool applications
- drilling, milling, turning & other metal
working operations
2. Non-machine tool applications
- assembly, drafting & inspection.

History: John Parson , Frank Stulen in

collaboration with MIT for the USA air force.
NC predecessor of CNC
 Basic components of CNC Machine
Program of instructions is detailed step by step command to
that direct the processing unit.
Machine Control Unit (MCU) is the brain of the NC machine.
Machine Tools or Processing equipment which performs
useful work
TYPES OF CNC MACHINE
CNC Machining Centers
CNC Turning Centers
CNC Drilling Machines
EDM Sinker and wire cut Machines
Flame and Laser-Cutting Machines
Water Jet Profilers
CNC Boring machines
CNC Punching machines
CNC Grinding machines
CNC Welding machines
CNC Bending machines
Basic principle of CNC
Each axis consists of a mechanical component,
such as a slide that moves, a servo drive motor
that powers the mechanical movement, and a
ball screw to transfer the power from the servo
drive motor to the mechanical component.
These components, along with the computer
controls that govern them, are referred to as an
axis drive system.

Additionally, a CNC axis may be either a linear

axis in which movement is in a straight line, or
a rotary axis with motion following a circular
path.
CNC Machine Tools
Classification of CNC M/c
Based on
1. Motion control
1. Point to point
2. Straight line or paraxial control
3. Continuous path Control or Contour systems
4. Combined motion control system
2. Feedback Control
1. open loop
2. closed loop
3. Semi-closed loop

3. Power drives:
1. hydraulic,
2. electric or
3. Pneumatic
4. hybrid
4. Positioning systems:
1. incremental and
2. absolute positioning
5. Circuit technology
1. Hardwired NC or analog
2. Soft-wired (CNC) or digital
6. Axis identification
2,3,4and 5 axes
NC Motion Control
Point-to-Point systems
Also called position systems
System moves to a location and performs an
operation at that location (e.g., drilling)
Also applicable in robotics
Continuous path systems
Also called contouring systems when control
of 2 or>2 axe is present
System performs an operation during
movement (e.g., milling and turning)
 NC Motion Control

Continuous path systems

Point-to-Point systems
1.Control system based
Point-to-point control systems
It cause the tool to maintain continuous contact with the part as the tool cuts a contour shape. These operations
include milling along any lines at any angle, milling arcs and lathe turning.
Motion Control
Point-to-point control Linear control Contouring control
(continual)

drilling milling machines, lathes machining (milling, turning)

point-to-point motion tool is moved to specific location, path or speed of move

between location is not controlled. (drilling)
Linear control movement along one of the axes of the machine.
Contouring control movement can be made in two or more axes
simultaneously.
 Interpolation Methods
1. Linear interpolation
Straight line between two points in space
2. Circular interpolation
Circular arc defined by starting point, end
point, center or radius, and direction
3. Helical interpolation
Circular plus linear motion
4. Parabolic interpolation
5. Cubic interpolation
Free form curves using higher order equations
 Circular Interpolation Methods

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight

line segments, where tolerance is defined on only the inside of
the nominal curve
 Circular Interpolation Methods

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight

line segments, where tolerance is defined on only the inside of
the nominal curve
Circular Interpolation Methods

Approximation of a curved path in NC by a series of straight line

segments, where tolerance is defined on both the inside and outside of
the nominal curve
 2.Feedback based
Open Loop System
Uses stepping motor to create
movement. Motors rotate a fixed amount
for each pulse received from the MCU.
The motor sends a signal back indicating
that the movement is completed. No
feedback to check how close the actual
machine movement comes to the exact
movement programmed.
Closed Loop System
AC, DC, and hydraulic servo motors are
used. The speed of these motors are variable
and controlled by the amount of current or
fluid. The motors are connect to the spindle
and the table. A device called a resolver
continuously monitors the movement and
sends back a single to MCU to make
adjustments.
3.Drives of CNC machine tool
Hydraulic actuator
high power machine tool
Stepping motor
small machine due to limited power and torque
DC motor
- excellent speed regulation, high torque, most widely
used
 4.Coordinate System
1. Absolute . In this mode, the desired target position of the tool
for a particular move is given relative to the origin point of the
program.

2. Incremental. In this mode, the next target position for the tool
is given relative to the current tool position.
NC Coordinate Systems
Based on the Cartesian Coordinate system
For flat and prismatic (block-like) parts:
Milling and drilling operations

Conventional Cartesian coordinate system

Rotational axes about each linear axis

For rotational parts:

Turning operations

Only x- and z-axes

Z-axis is always
parallel to the axis of
rotation
NC Coordinate Systems
Features of CNC
1. Storage of more than one part program
-Memory expansions possible

2. Various forms of program input

- initially hardwired, magnetic tapes,
floppy. Now RS2 32

3. Program editing at the machine tool

4. Fixed cycles and programming
subroutines - Macros
5. Interpolation
Features of CNC
6. Positioning features for setup
- Position set feature, references the m/c tool axes to a point or
a set of points on the fixture. Operator does not do it.

7. Cutter length and size compensation

- cutter sensor used to calculate exact dimensions of
tool and cutter offset, as they may be different from
that originally planned
8. Acceleration and deceleration computations
- to avoid tool marks during direction change
9. Communications interface
- RS-232 standards allow m/c tool to link with other
computer driven devices for
downloading programs,
collecting operational data and
interfacing with peripheral equipment like robots, AS/R, AGVs
Machining Centre
Machining centre is a machine tool capable
of performing several different machining
operations on a work part in one setup under
program control
capable of milling, drilling, reaming, tapping,
boring, facing, and similar operations.
Characterizations of an NC machining center:
Automatic tool-changing capability
Automatic work part positioning has a rotary
table
Pallet shuttle.
Machining Centre - types
Three types of machining centres
1. Vertical Machining centre
2. Horizontal Machining centre
3. Universal Machining centre
 Machining Centre - types
Vertical
For flat
work
pieces
that
require
tool
access
from the
top
Vertical Machining Centre
Machining Centre - types
Horizontal
For cube shaped parts, where access is required all sides
Has spindle on the horizontal axis
 Universal
Machining Centre
Spindle axis can
be tilted from
horizontal to
vertical
Equivalent to 5-
axis machining
CNC Controllers
CNC Controllers
CNC controller interprets part program instructions and then converts them into two
types of control signals:
Motion control signals
a series of electric pulse trains that control position and the speed of machine
table and spindle.
Each pulse activates a motion of one basic length-unit (BLU) which is the
minimum increment size of the NC control system
number of pulses transmitted to each axis determines the incremental axis
position; frequency of these pulses regulates the axis speed
 CNC Controllers
The control signals in CNC systems are in the form of
binary words. Each word contains a fixed number of
bits, 32 bits or 64 bits are commonly used.
Each bit of data produces one BLU motion in the
controlled axis.
A 32-bit word could represent one of up to 232 =
4,294,967,296 different axial positions.
If the system resolution is, for example, BLU = 0.0001
in., this number can represent up to 429,969 in. possible
motions, which is more than enough for all types of
applications
CNC Controllers
Miscellaneous control signals
-a set of on/off signals to implement the control of
1. speed and direction of the spindle rotation,
2. control of coolant supply,
3. selection of cutting tool,
4. automatic clamping and unclamping, etc.
Advantages of CNC
Increased productivity
Reduced production costs
Facilitation of complex machining operations
Improved production planning and control
Facilitation of flexible automation
High accuracy and repeatability
Reduced indirect operating costs
Greater flexibility
Lower operator skill requirement
Disadvantages of CNC
High initial cost
Equipment and installation
High maintenance cost
Skilled CNC personnel required
Have to be installed in air-conditioned places
Not suitable for long run applications
Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)
Direct numerical control (DNC) control of multiple
machine tools by a single (mainframe) computer
through direct connection and in real time
1960s technology
Two way communication

Distributed numerical control (DNC) network

consisting of central computer connected to machine
tool MCUs, which are CNC
Present technology
Two way communication
Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)
Bypasses the need for a MCU
Processing of part programs are done on a centralized
computer
Program transmitted to the MCU, one block at a time (BTR)

Basic components
Mainframe computer
Connected via satellite computers or lengthy cables
Bulk memory
Communications network
NC machine tools
Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)
Advantages:
Higher reliability than hardwired MCUs
Elimination or error prone tape and tape-reader
Control of multiple machines
Improved computational capability for circular
interpolations
Part programs stored in a central location
Computers located in an environmentally agreeable
location
Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)
Types of DNC
- based on communication link between machine tool
and computer

1. Dedicated MC
- Similar to a CNC as MCU is hardwired
2. Behind the tape reader (BTR) interface
- cheaper to use
- easily implemented
- receives only the program of the part to be
manufactured
 Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)

Connection to MCU is behind the tape reader (BTR). In distributed NC,

entire programs are downloaded to each MCU, which is CNC rather than
conventional NC
 Distributed Numeric Control
(DNC)
Similar to CNC computers
Improved data collection
Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)
 DNC switching network
configuration
Limitations
1. No of machines
2. Frequency of service required for each machine
Direct Numeric Control
(DNC)-LAN configuration
Adaptive Control
to adapt means to change a behavior to conform to
new circumstances.

An adaptive controller
a controller that can modify its behavior in
response to the changes in dynamics of the processes
and the disturbances acting on the process.

A self-correcting form of optimal control

 Adaptive Control
In machining, it includes automatic adjustment of cutting
parameters like speeds, feeds, depth of cut, etc.

General
Configuration
Adaptive Control
Adaptive controller performs 3 functions
1. Identification
Identifies the current value of performance index
Functions continuously to be dynamic
2. Decision
- decide what changes have to be made to improve
system performance
3. Modification
- implement the decision
Adaptive Control
Two types of Adaptive control
Adaptive Control with optimization (ACO)
Adaptive Control with constraints (ACC)

ACO attempts to maximize IP index of

performance
IP = MRR/ TWR
MRR = Metal Removal Rate; TWR = Tool Wear Rate
usually an economic index of performance
eg: Maximum production rate, minimum production cost
Adaptive Control
Adaptive Control with Constraints (ACC)
Machining conditions are maximized within machine
constraints eg: maximum force or torque or power
Two sensors are employed
Tool vibration sensor accelerometer mounted on the
housing
Spindle torque sensor strain gauges mounted on the
machine spindle