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INTRODUCTION
Hydrogen,chemicalelementthatexistsasagasat
roomtemperature.Whenhydrogengasburnsinair,it
formswater.FrenchchemistAntoineLavoisiernamed
hydrogenfromtheGreekwordsforwaterformer.
Hydrogenhasthesmallestatomsofanyelement.A
hydrogenatomcontainsoneproton,andonlyone
electron.Theprotonisthecenter,ornucleus,ofthe
hydrogenatom,andtheelectrontravelsaroundthe
nucleus.
Purehydrogenexistsashydrogengas,inwhichpairsof
hydrogenatomsbondtogethertomakemolecules.
theelementsandisrepresentedbythesymbolH.
Hydrogen,withonlyoneproton,isthesimplest
element.ItisusuallyplacedinPeriod1andGroup1of
theperiodictable.
Hydrogencancombinechemicallywithalmostevery
otherelementandformsmorecompoundsthandoes
anyotherelement.Thesecompoundsincludewater,
minerals,andhydrocarbonscompoundsmadeof
hydrogenandcarbonsuchaspetroleumandnatural
gas.
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Electrolysisofwater
UseelectricitytosplitwaterintoO2andH2
HighTemperatureElectrolysis
Experimental
Biologicalprocesses
Verycommoninnature
Experimentalinlaboratories
STEAM REFORMING
Fromanyhydrocarbon
Naturalgastypicallyused
Water(steam)andhydrocarbonmixedathigh
temperature(7001100C)
Steam(H2O)reactswithmethane(CH4)
CH4+H2OCO+3H2-191.7kJ/mol
Thethermodynamicefficiencycomparableto(or
worsethan)aninternalcombustionengine
Difficulttomotivateinvestmentintechnology
carbonmonoxide(CO)
low-temp(130C)watergasshiftreaction
CO+H2OCO2+H2+40.4kJ/mol
Oxygen(O)atomstrippedfromsteam
Oxidizesthecarbon(C)
LiberateshydrogenboundtoCandO2
http://www.howstuffworks.com/hydrogen-economy4.htm
Biological H2 Creation
Naturehasverysimple
methodstosplitwater
Scientistsareworkingto
mimictheseprocessesin
thelab;thencommercially
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF H2
Dihydrogenisa:
Colourless,
Odourless
Tasteless
Combustiblegas
Lighterthanair
Insolubleinwater
Itsmeltingpoint18.73K
&boilingpoint23.67K
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF H2
Hydrogengasdoesnotusuallyreactwithotherchemicals
atroomtemperature,becausethebondbetweenthe
hydrogenatomsisverystrongandcanonlybebrokenwith
alargeamountofenergy.
Sinceitsorbitalisincompletewith1s 1electronic
configuration,itdoescombinewithalmostallthe
elements.
Itaccomplishesreactionsby:
1.lossofonee-togiveH+
2.gainofane-toformH3.sharingelectronstoformasinglecovalentbond.
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Bosch reaction
Hydrogenation
Dehydrogenation
Transfer hydrogenation
Hydrogenolysis
BOSCHREACTION
TheBosch reactionisachemicalreactionbetweencarbon
dioxideandhydrogenthatproduceselementalcarbon(graphite),waterand
a10%returnofinvestedheat.Thisreactionrequirestheintroductionof
ironasacatalystandrequiresatemperaturelevelof530-730degrees
Celsius.
Theoverallreactionisasfollows:
CO2(g)+2H2(g)C(s)+2H2O(g)
Theabovereactionisactuallytheresultoftworeactions.Thefirst
reaction,thereversewatergasshiftreaction,isafastone.
CO2+H2CO+H2O
Thesecondreactioncontrolsthereactionrate.
CO+H2C+H2O
Theoverallreactionproduces2.3103joulesforeverygramof
carbonproducedat650C.Reactiontemperaturesareintherange
of450to600C.
Thereactioncanbeacceleratedinthepresenceof
aniron,cobaltornickelcatalyst.Rutheniumalsoservestospeed
upthereaction.
TogetherwiththeSabatierreactiontheBoschreactionis
studiedasawaytoremovecarbondioxideandtogenerateclean
wateraboardaspacestation
Thereactionisalsousedtoproducegraphiteforradiocarbon
datingwithAcceleratorMassSpectrometry.
ItisnamedaftertheGermanchemistCarlBosch.
Hydrogenation
Totreatwithhydrogen-isachemicalreactionbetween
molecularhydrogen(H2)andanothercompoundorelement,usuallyin
thepresenceofacatalyst.Theprocessiscommonlyemployed
toreduceorsaturateorganiccompounds.Hydrogenationtypically
constitutestheadditionofpairsofhydrogenatomstoamolecule,
generallyanalkene.Catalystsarerequiredforthereactiontobeusable;
non-catalytichydrogenationtakesplaceonlyatveryhigh
temperatures.Hydrogenaddstodoubleandtriplebondsinhydrocarbons
Becauseoftheimportanceofhydrogen,manyrelatedreactionshave
beendevelopedforitsuse.Mosthydrogenationsusegaseoushydrogen
(H2),butsomeinvolvethealternativesourcesofhydrogen,notH2:these
processesarecalledtransferhydrogenations.Thereversereaction,removal
ofhydrogenfromamolecule,iscalleddehydrogenation.
Areactionwherebondsarebrokenwhilehydrogenisaddedis
calledhydrogenolysis,areactionthatmayoccurtocarbon-carbonand
carbon-heteroatom(oxygen,nitrogenorhalogen)bonds.Hydrogenation
differsfromprotonationorhydrideaddition:inhydrogenation,the
productshavethesamechargeasthereactants.
Anillustrativeexampleofahydrogenationreactionistheaddition
ofhydrogentomaleicacidtoformsuccinicacid.Numerousimportant
applicationsofthispetrochemicalarefoundinpharmaceuticalandfood
industries.Hydrogenationofunsaturatedfatsproducessaturated
fatsand,insomecases,transfats.
DEHYDROGENATION
Dehydrogenationisachemicalreactionthatinvolvestheremoval
ofhydrogenfromamoleculeas(H2).Itisthereverseprocessof
hydrogenation.Dehydrogenationreactionsmaybeeitherlargescale
industrialprocessesorsmallerscalelaboratoryprocedures.
Classesofthereaction
Thereareavarietyofclassesofdehydrogenations:
AromatizationSix-memberedalicyclicringscanbearomatized
inthepresenceofhydrogenationcatalysts,theelementssulfur
andselenium,orquinones(suchasDDQ).
OxidationTheconversion
ofalcoholstoketonesoraldehydescanbeeffectedbymetalcatalysts
suchascopperchromite.IntheOppenaueroxidation,hydrogenis
transferredfromonealcoholtoanothertobringabouttheoxidation.
Dehydrogenationofaminesaminescanbeconverted
tonitrilesusingavarietyofreagents,suchasIodine
pentafluoride(IF5).
Dehydrogenationofparaffin'sandolefinsparaffin'slikenpentaneandisopentanecanbeconverted
topenteneandisopreneusingchromium(III)oxideasacatalystat
500degreeC.
Dehydrogenationconvertssaturatedfatstounsaturatedfats.
Enzymesthatcatalyzedehydrogenationarecalleddehydrogenases.
Dehydrogenationprocessesareusedextensivelytoproducestyrenein
thefinechemicals,oleochemicals,petrochemicals,anddetergents
industries.
TRANSFERHYDROGENATION
Istheadditionofhydrogen(H2;dihydrogen
ininorganicandorganometallicchemistry)toamoleculefromasourceother
thangaseousH2.Itisappliedinindustryandinorganicsynthesis,inpart
becauseoftheinconvenienceandexpenseofusinggaseousH2.Onelargescale
applicationoftransferhydrogenationiscoalliquefactionusing"donorsolvents"
suchastetralin
HYDROGENOLYSIS
Hydrogenolysisisachemicalreactionwherebyacarboncarbonor
carbonheteroatomsinglebondiscleavedorundergoes"lysis"by
hydrogen.Theheteroatommayvary,butitusuallyisoxygen,nitrogen,or
sulfur.Arelatedreactionishydrogenation,wherehydrogenisaddedtothe
molecule,withoutcleavingbonds.Usuallyhydrogenolysisisconducted
catalyticallyusinghydrogengas.
N
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HYDROGEN STORAGE
OPTIONS
CHEMICAL STORAGE
Dissociative
H2 2 H
PHYSICAL
STORAGE
Molecular
H2
REVERSIBL
E
REVERSIBL
E
NONREVERSIBLE
REFORMED FUEL
HYDROLYZED
FUEL
COMPRESSED
GAS
HYBRI
D
TANKS
DECOMPOSED
FUEL
LIQUID
HYDROGEN
CONVENTIONAL
METAL
HYDRIDES
COMPLEX
METAL
HYDRIDES
LIGHT
ELEMENT
SYSTEMS
Compressed Storage
Prototype vehicle tanks developed
Efficient high-volume manufacturing
processes needed
Less expensive materials desired
carbon fiber
binder
Liquid Storage
Prototype vehicle tanks developed
Reduced mass and especially volume needed
Reduced cost and development of high-volume production processes
needed
Extenddormancy(timetostart
ofboiloffloss)without
increasingcost,mass,volume
Improveenergyefficiencyof
liquefaction
viable option
automotive applications
Accurate, fast computational techniques needed to scan new
system performance
storage capacity
temperature of hydrogen release
kinetics/speed of hydrogen refueling
Catalysts and additives may also improve storage
characteristics
ISOTOPES OF
HYDROGEN
Hydrogen has three naturally
occurring isotopes,
denoted1H,2Hand3H.
Other, highly unstable nuclei
(4Hto7H) have been
synthesized in the laboratory
but not observed in nature
Histhemostcommonhydrogenisotopewith
anabundanceofmorethan99.98%.Because
thenucleusofthisisotopeconsistsofonlya
singleproton,itisgiventhedescriptivebut
rarelyusedformalnameprotium.
1
H,theotherstablehydrogenisotope,isknownasdeuteriumand
containsoneprotonandoneneutroninitsnucleus.Essentiallyall
deuteriumintheuniverseisthoughttohavebeenproducedatthe
timeoftheBigBang,andhasenduredsincethattime.Deuterium
isnotradioactive,anddoesnotrepresentasignificanttoxicity
hazard.Waterenrichedinmoleculesthatincludedeuterium
insteadofnormalhydrogeniscalledheavywater.Deuteriumand
itscompoundsareusedasanon-radioactivelabelinchemical
experimentsandinsolventsfor1H-NMRspectroscopy.Heavy
waterisusedasaneutronmoderatorandcoolantfornuclear
reactors.Deuteriumisalsoapotentialfuelfor
commercialnuclearfusion
2
Hisknownastritiumandcontainsoneprotonandtwo
neutronsinitsnucleus.Itisradioactive,decayingintohelium3throughbetadecaywithahalf-lifeof12.32years.Itisso
radioactivethatitcanbeusedinluminouspaint,makingit
usefulinsuchthingsaswatches.Theglasspreventsthesmall
amountofradiationfromgettingout.Smallamountsof
tritiumoccurnaturallybecauseoftheinteractionofcosmic
rayswithatmosphericgases;tritiumhasalsobeenreleased
duringnuclearweaponstests.Itisusedinnuclearfusion
reactions,asatracerinisotopegeochemistry,andspecialized
inself-poweredlightingdevices.Tritiumhasalsobeenusedin
chemicalandbiologicallabelingexperimentsasaradiolabe
3
Hcontainsoneprotonandthreeneutronsinitsnucleus.It
isahighlyunstableisotopeofhydrogen.Ithasbeen
synthesizedinthelaboratorybybombardingtritiumwith
fast-movingdeuteriumnuclei.Inthisexperiment,the
tritiumnucleicapturedneutronsfromthefast-moving
deuteriumnucleus.Thepresenceofthehydrogen-4was
deducedbydetectingtheemittedprotons.Itsatomic
massis4.027810.00011.Itdecaysthroughneutron
emissionwithahalf-lifeof(1.390.10)1022seconds.
4
Hisahighlyunstableisotopeofhydrogen.The
nucleusconsistsofaprotonandfourneutrons.
Ithasbeensynthesizedinthelaboratoryby
bombardingtritiumwithfast-movingtritium
nuclei.Inthisexperiment,onetritiumnucleus
capturestwoneutronsfromtheother,becoming
anucleuswithoneprotonandfourneutrons.
Theremainingprotonmaybedetected,andthe
existenceofhydrogen-5deduced.Itdecays
throughdoubleneutronemissionandhasahalflifeofatleast9.11022seconds.
5
Hdecaysthroughtripleneutron
emissionandhasahalf-lifeof
2.901022seconds.Itconsistsof1
protonand5neutrons.
6
Hconsistsofaprotonandsixneutrons.Itwasfirst
synthesizedin2003byagroupofRussian,Japanese
andFrenchscientistsatRIKEN'sRIBeamScience
Laboratorybybombardinghydrogenwithhelium8atoms.Intheresultingreaction,thehelium-8's
neutronsweredonatedtothehydrogen'snucleus.
Thetworemainingprotonsweredetectedbythe
"RIKENtelescope",adevicecomposedofseveral
layersofsensors,positionedbehindthetargetofthe
RIBeamcyclotron.
7
IMPORTANT
Hydrogenistheonlyelementthathasdifferentnamesfor
itsisotopesincommonusetoday.Duringtheearlystudyof
radioactivity,variousheavyradioactiveisotopesweregiven
theirownnames,butsuchnamesarenolongerused,exceptfor
deuteriumandtritium.ThesymbolsDandT(instead
of2Hand3H)aresometimesusedfordeuteriumandtritium,but
thecorrespondingsymbolforprotium,P,isalreadyinuse
forphosphorusandthusisnotavailableforprotium.In
itsnomenclaturalguidelines,theInternationalUnionofPure
andAppliedChemistryallowsanyofD,T,2H,and3Htobe
used,although2Hand3Harepreferred.
Deut
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13.9 18.
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9
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USES OF
HYDROGEN
4 ENERGY
SECURITY
4 ECONOMIC
PROSPERITY
4 ENVIRONMENTAL
STEWARDSHIP
TheSunsenergyis
producedinthecore
throughnuclearfusion
ofhydrogenatomsinto
helium.Gasesinthe
coreareabout150
timesasdenseaswater
andreachtemperatures
ashighas16million
degreesC(29million
degreesF).
Cont.
Hydrogenaccountsforabout73percentofthe
observedmassoftheuniverseandisthemost
commonelementintheuniverse.
Hydrogenatomswerethefirstatomstoforminthe
earlyuniverseandthattheatomsoftheother
elementsformedlaterfromthehydrogenatoms.
About90percentoftheatomsintheuniverseare
hydrogen,about9percentarehelium,andallthe
otherelementsaccountforlessthan1percent.
Cont.
Common Molecules:
Manycommonmolecules
containhydrogen.Inthese
molecules,butane
containstenhydrogen
atoms,ammoniacontains
threehydrogenatoms,and
watercontainstwo
hydrogenatoms.
Transportation
Biomass
Hydro
HIGH
EFFICIENCY
& RELIABILITY
Wind
Solar
Geothermal
Oil
Coal
Natural
Gas
Nuclear
ZERO/NEAR
ZERO
EMISSIONS
Distributed
Generation
Flexibility Of Use
Transportation
Desiredrangecanbeachievedwithon-boardhydrogenstorage(unlike
BatteryElectricVehicle)
Canbeusedininternalcombustionengines
Trains,automobiles,buses,andships
Buildings
Combinedheat,power,andfuel
Reliableenergyservicesforcriticalapplications
Gridindependence
Industrial Sector
Alreadyplaysanimportantroleasachemical
Opportunitiesforadditionalrevenuestreams
gasoline
StoreandTransportasaSolid
SodiumBorohydride
CalciumHydride
LithiumHydride
SodiumHydride
Transporting Hydrogen
Hydrogen-Powered Autos
Hydrogen-Powered Autos
Hydrogen-Powered Trucks
Hydrogen-Powered Aircraft
Hydrogenpoweredpassengeraircraftwithcryogenictanksalongspineof
fuselage.Hydrogenfuelrequiresabout4timesthevolumeofstandardjet
fuel(kerosene).
Hydrogen-Powered Rockets
Hydrogen Safety
Hydrogen
Gasoline
Three Second
seconds
One minute
Possibleenvironmentalproblems
Ozonedepletion(notprovenatthispoint)
A Vision of a Hydrogen
Future
"I believe that water will one day be employed as fuel, that
hydrogen and oxygen which constitute it, used singly or
together, will furnish an inexhaustible source of heat and
light, of an intensity of which coal is not capable. I believe
then that when the deposits of coal are exhausted, we shall
heat and warm ourselves with water. Water will be the coal
of the future."
JulesVernes(1870)Lle mystrieuse
RISKS OF
HYDROGE
N
HYDROGEN DAMAGE
Hydrogen damageisthegenericnamegiventoalargenumber
ofmetaldegradationprocessesduetointeractionwithhydrogen.
Hydrogenispresentpracticallyeverywhere,severalkilometersabovethe
earthandinsidetheearth.Engineeringmaterialsareexposedtohydrogen
andtheymayinteractwithitresultinginvariouskindsofstructuraldamage.
Damagingeffectsofhydrogeninmetallicmaterialshavebeenknownsince
1875whenW.H.Johnsonreportedsomeremarkablechangesproduced
inironbytheactionofhydrogenandacids.Duringtheinterveningyears
manysimilareffectshavebeenobservedindifferentstructuralmaterials,
suchassteel,aluminum,titanium,andzirconium.Becauseofthe
technologicalimportanceofhydrogendamage,manypeopleexploredthe
nature,causesandcontrolmeasuresofhydrogenrelateddegradationof
metals.Hardening,embrittlementandinternaldamagearethemainhydrogen
damageprocessesinmetals.Thisarticleconsistsofaclassificationof
hydrogendamage,briefdescriptionofthevariousprocessesandtheir
mechanisms,andsomeguidelinesforthecontrolofhydrogendamage.
HYDROGEN
EMBRITTLEMENT
Hydrogen embrittlementistheprocessbywhichvarious
metals,mostimportantlyhigh-strengthsteel,
becomebrittleandfracturefollowingexposure
tohydrogen.Hydrogenembrittlementisoftentheresultof
unintentionalintroductionofhydrogenintosusceptible
metalsduringformingorfinishingoperationsand
increasescrackinginthematerial.
Hydrogenembrittlementisalsousedtodescribethe
formationofzircaloyhydride.Useoftheterminthis
contextiscommoninthenuclearindustry.
Usuallyavacuuminsidetheobjectiscreatedwithanexternal
pumpconnectedtotheinstrument.
Alternativelyheliumcanbeinjectedinsidetheproductwhilethe
productitselfisenclosedinavacuumchamberconnectedtothe
instrument.InthiscaseBurstandleakagetestscanbecombinedin
oneoperation.
TheHydrogensensor,Theobjectisfilledwithamixtureof
5%hydrogen/95%nitrogen,(below5.7%hydrogenisnonflammable(ISO-10156).Thisiscalledtypicallyasniffingtest. The
handprobeconnectedtothemicroelectronichydrogensensorsisused
tochecktheobject.Anaudiosignalincreasesinproximityofaleak.
Detectionofleaksgodownto5x10-7cubiccentimeterspersecond.
Comparedtotheheliumtest:hydrogenischeaperthanhelium,no
needforavacuum,theinstrumentcouldbecheaper.
HYDROGEN
SAFETY
Hydrogen safetycoversthesafeproduction,handling
anduseofhydrogen.Hydrogenposesuniquechallengesdue
toitseaseofleaking,low-energyignition,widerangeof
combustiblefuel-airmixtures,buoyancy,anditsability
toembrittlemetalsthatmustbeaccountedfortoensuresafe
operation.Liquidhydrogenposesadditionalchallengesdue
toitsincreaseddensityandtheextremelylow
temperaturesneededtokeepitinliquidform.
O
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OCCURRENCE OF DIHYDROGEN
HydrogenisthetenthmostcommonelementonEarth.
Becauseitissolight,though,hydrogenaccountsfor
lessthan1percentofEarth'stotalmass.Itisusually
foundincompounds.Purehydrogengasrarelyoccurs
innature,althoughvolcanoesandsomeoilwells
releasesmallamountsofhydrogengas.
Hydrogenisinnearlyeverycompoundinthehuman
body.Forexample,itisinkeratin,themainprotein
thatformsourhairandskin,andintheenzymesthat
digestfoodinourintestines.Hydrogenisinthe
moleculesinfoodthatprovideenergy:fats,proteins,
andcarbohydrates.
PREPARATION OF DIHYDROGEN
Laboratory preparation of dihydrogen:
1.Itisusuallypreparedbythereactionofgranulated
zincwithdilutehydrochloricacid.Thechemical
equationforthisreactionisthefollowing:
Zn+2HClZnCl2+H2
2.Itcanalsobepreparedbythereactionofzincwith
aqueousalkali.Thechemicalequationforthisreaction
isthefollowing:
Zn+2NaOH
Na2ZnO2+H2
(Sodiumzincate)
Dihydrogen in 3D
Cont.
Commercial production of dihydrogen:
1.Electrolysisofacidifiedwaterusingplatinum
electrodesgiveshydrogen.
2H2Oelectrolysis2H2+O2
Thischemicalequationshowsthattwowater
molecules(withelectricity),formtwomoleculesof
hydrogengasandonemoleculeofoxygengas.
2.Highpurity(>99.95%)dihydrogenisobtainedby
electrolysingwarmaqueousbariumhydroxide
solutionbetweennickelelectrodes.
Cont.
3. Itisobtainedasabyproductinthemanufactureofsodium
hydroxide&chlorinebytheelectrolysisofbrinesolutions.
Thereactionsthattakesplaceare:
Atanode:2Cl-Cl2+2eAtcathode:2H2O+2e-H2+2OHTheoverallreactionis
2Na++2Cl-+2H2O
Cl2+H2+2Na++2OH
Cont.
4. Reactionofsteamonhydrocarbonsathightemperaturein
thepresenceofcatalystyieldshydrogen.e.g.,
CH4+H2O1270KCO+3H2
Ni
ThemixtureofCO&H2iscalledwater gas.
Itisusedforsynthesisofmethanol&anumberof
hydrocarbons,thereforeitiscalledsynthesisgasor
syngas.
Theproductionofdihydrogencanbeincreasedbyreacting
carbonmonoxidewithsteaminthepresenceironchromate
ascatalyst.
CO+H2O673KCO2+H2
Catalyst
Thisiscalledwater-gas shift reaction.Carbondioxideis
removedbyscrubbingwithsodiumarsenitesolution.
CHEMISTRY OF
DIHYDROGEN
Reaction
with halogens:
Itreactswithhalogens,X2togivehydrogenhalides,
HX,
H2+X22HX(X=F,Cl,Br,I)
Whilethereactionwithfluorineoccurseveninthe
dark,withiodineitrequiresacatalyst.
Reaction with dioxygen:
Itreactswithdioxygentoformwater.Thereactionis
highlyexothermic.
2H2+O2catalystorheating2H2O;H=-285.9kJmol-1
Cont.
Reaction with dinitrogen:
Withdintrogenitformsammonia.
3H2+N2673K,200atm2NH3;H=-92.6kJmol-1
ThisisthemethodforthemanufactureofammoniabyHaber
process.
Haber Process:
GermanchemistandNobellaureateFritzHaberdevelopedan
economicalmethodofproducingammoniafromairand
seawater.Inhisprocess,nitrogenisseparatedfromtheother
componentsofairthroughdistillization.Hydrogenisobtained
fromseawaterbypassinganelectriccurrentthroughthewater.
Thenitrogenandhydrogenarecombinedtoformammonia
(NH3).
Cont.
Reaction with metals:
Hydrogenalsoformsionicbondswithsomemetals,at
ahightemperature,creatingacompoundcalleda
hydride.
H2+2M2MH
WhereMisanalkalimetal(e.g.lithium,sodium,
potassium,rubidium,cesium,andfrancium.)
Reactions with metal ions & metal oxides:
Itreducessomemetalionsinaqueoussolution&
oxidesofmetals(lessactivethaniron)into
correspondingmetals.
H2+Pd2+Pd+2H+
yH2+MxOyxM+yH2O
Cont.
Reactions with organic compounds:
1.Hydrogenationofvegetableoilsusingnickelas
catalystgivesediblefats.(margarine&vanaspati
ghee).
2.Hydroformylationofolefinsyieldsaldehydeswhich
furtherundergoreductiontogivealcohols.
H2+CO+RCH=CH2RCH2CH2CHO
H2+RCH2CH2CHORCH2CH2CH2OH
USES OF DIHYDROGEN
Thelargestuseofdihydrogenisinthesynthesisof
ammoniawhichisusedinthemanufactureofnitric
acid&nitrogenousfertilizers.
Dihydrogenisusedinthemanufactureofvanaspati
fat.
Itisusedinthemanufactureofbulkorganic
chemicals,particularlymethanol.
CO+2H2catalystcobaltCH3OH
Itiswidelyusedforthemanufactureofmetal
hydrides.
Itisusedforthepreparationofhydrogenchloride,a
highlyusefulchemical.
Cont
Inmetallurgicalprocesses,itiswidelyusedto
reduceheavymetaloxidestometals.
Atomichydrogen&oxy-hydrogentorchesfinduse
forcutting&weldingpurposes.
Itisusedasarocketfuelinspaceresearch.
Dihydrogenisusedinthefuelcellsforgenerating
electricalenergy.Ithasmanyadvantagesoverthe
conventionalfossilfuels&electricpower.
DIHYDROGEN AS A FUEL:
Dihydrogenreleaseslargequantitiesofheaton
combustion.
Dihydrogencanreleasemoreenergythanpetrol's.
HYDROGEN ECONOMY: Thebasicprincipleof
hydrogeneconomyisthetransportation&storageof
energyintheformofliquidorgaseousdihydrogen.
Energyistransmittedintheformofdihydrogen¬
aselectricpower.
Itisalsouseinfuelcellforgenerationofelectric
power.
R
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H
S
E
ID
HYDRIDES
Dihydrogenalsoformsionicbondswithsomemetals,
atahightemperature,creatingacompoundcalleda
hydride.
If E isthesymbolofanelementthenhydridecanbe
expressedasEHX(e.g.MgH2)orEmHn(e.g.B2H6).
Thehydridesareclassifiedintothreecategories:
1.Ionicorsalineorsaltlikehydrides.
2.Covalentormolecularhydrides.
3.Metallicornon-stoichiometrichydrides.
formedwithmostofthes-blockelementswhichare
highlyelectropositiveincharacter.
Covalentcharacterisfoundinthelightermetalhydrides
(e.g.LiH,BeH2&MgH2).
Theionichydridesarecrystalline,non-volatile&nonconductinginsolidstate.
Theirmeltsconductelectricity&onelectrolysisliberate
dihydrogengasatanode,whichconfirmstheexistenceof
H-ion.
2H-(melt)anodeH2+2e-
Salinehydridesreactviolentlywithwaterproducing
dihydrogengas.
NaH+H2ONaOH+H2
COVALENT OR MOLECULAR
Dihydrogenformsmolecularcompoundswithmostof
HYDRIDE
thep-blockelements.Fore.g.CH4,NH3,H2O&HF.
Hydrogencompoundsofnonmetalshavealsobeen
consideredashydrides.Beingcovalenttheyarevolatile
compounds.
Molecularhydridesarefurtherclassifiedaccordingtothe
relativenumberofelectrons&bondsintheirLewis
structureinto:
1.Electron-deficient
2.Electron-precise
3.Electron-richhydrides.
ELEC
TRON
DEFI
CIEN
T
HYD
RIDE
S
ELEC
TRON
PREC
ISE
HYD
RIDE
S
ELEC
TRON
-RICH
HYD
RIDE
S
Has
few
elec
tron
s for
Lewi
s
stru
ctur
e.
Hav
e
the
requ
ired
num
ber
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METALLIC HYDRIDES
Theseareformedbymanyd-block&f-blockelements.
Themetalsofgroup7,8&9donotformhydride.
Thesehydridesconductheat&electricitythoughnotas
efficientlyastheirparentmetalsdo.
Unlikesalinehydrides,theyarealmostnon-stoichiometric,
beingdeficientinhydrogen.Fore.g.LaH 2.87&YbH2.55.
Lawofconstantcompositiondoesnotholdgood.
Thepropertyofabsorptionofhydrogenontransitionmetal
iswidelyusedincatalyticreduction/hydrogenation
reactionsforthepreparationoflargenumberof
compounds.
Someofthemetalscanaccommodateaverylargevolume
ofhydrogen&canbeusedasitsstorage media.
R
E
T
A
W
Water
Amajorpartofalllivingorganismsismadeupof
water.
Humanbodyhasabout65%&someplantshaveas
muchas95%water.
Itisacrucialcompoundforthesurvivalofalllife
forms.
Itisasolventofgreatimportance.
phase(liquid&solid)areduetothepresenceof
extensivehydrogenbondingbetweenwatermolecules.
Waterhasahigherspecificheat,thermalconductivity,
surfacetension,dipolemoment&dielectricconstant
whencomparedtootherliquids.
Itisanexcellentsolventfortransportationofions&
moleculesrequiredforplant&animalmetabolism.
Duetohydrogenbondingwithpolarmolecules,even
covalentcompoundslikealcohol&carbohydrates
dissolveinwater.
STRUCTURE OF WATER
Inthegasphasewaterisabentmoleculewithabondangleof
104.50,
andO-Hbondlengthof95.7pm.
Itisahighlypolarmolecule.
Intheliquidphasewatermoleculesareassociatedtogetherby
hydrogen bonds.
Densityofwaterismorethanthatofice.
Hydrogenbondsarechemicalbondsthatformbetween
moleculescontainingahydrogenatombondedtoastrongly
electronegativeatom.Becausetheelectronegativeatom
pullstheelectronfromthehydrogenatom,theatomsform
averypolarmolecule,meaningoneendisnegatively
chargedandtheotherendispositivelycharged.Hydrogen
bondsformbetweenthesemoleculesbecausethenegative
endsofthemoleculesareattractedtothepositiveendsof
othermolecules,andviceversa.Hydrogenbondingmakes
waterformaliquidatroomtemperature.
STRUCTURE OF ICE:
Icehasahighlyorderedthreedimensional
hydrogenbondedstructure.
Examinationoficecrystalswithx-raysshowsthat
eachoxygenatomissurroundedtetrahedrallyby
fourotheroxygenatomsadistanceof276pm.
Hydrogenbondinggivesicearatheropentype
structurewithwideholes.Theseholescanhold
someothermoleculesofappropriatesize
interstitially.
Structure of ice
H2O+NH3OH-+NH4+
H2O+H2SH3O++HS-
Theauto-protolysis(self-ionization)ofwatertakesplaceas
follows:
H2O+H2OH3O++OH-
electropositivemetals.
2H2O+2Na2NaOH+H2
Thus,itisagreatsourceofdihydrogen.
WaterisoxidisedtoO2duringphotosynthesis.
6CO2+12H2OC6H12O6+6H2O+6O2
WithfluorinealsoitisoxidisedtoO2.
2F2+2H2O4H++4F-+O2
Hydrolysis reaction
Duetohighdielectricconstant,ithasaverystrong
hydratingtendency.Itdissolvesmanyionic
compounds.However,certaincovalent&some
ioniccompoundsarehydrolysedinwater.
P4O10+6H2O4H3PO4
SiCl4+2H2OSiO2+4HCl
N3-+3H2ONH3+3OH
HYDRATES FORMATION
Fromaqueoussolutionsmanysaltscanbecrystallised
ashydratedsalts.Suchanassociationofwaterisof
differenttypesviz.,
(i)coordinated water e.g.,
[Cr(H2O)6]3+3Cl(ii)interstitial water e.g.,
BaCl2.2H2O
(iii)hydrogen-bonded water e.g.,
[Cu(H2O)4]2+SO42-.H2OinCuSO4.5H2O
HYDROGEN
PEROXIDE
HYDROGEN PEROXIDE:
Hydrogenperoxideisanimportantchemicalusedinpollution
controltreatmentofdomestic&industrialeffluents.
PREPARATION:
Itcanbepreparedbythefollowingmethods:
1.Acidifyingbariumperoxide&removingexcesswaterby
evaporationunderreducedpressuregiveshydrogenperoxide.
BaO2.8H2O+H2SO4BaSO4+H2O2+8H2O
2.Preoxodisulphate,obtainedbyelectrolyticoxidationof
acidifiedsulphatesolutionsathighcurrentdensity,on
hydrolysisyieldshydrogenperoxide.
2HSO4- electrolysis HO3SOOSO3Hhydrolysis2HSO4-+2H++H2O2
Cont.
ThismethodisnowusedforthelaboratorypreparationofD 2O2.
K2S2O8+2D2O2KDSO4+D2O2
3.Industiallyitispreparedbytheauto-oxidationof2alklylanthraquinols.
2-ethylanthraquinolH2O2+(oxidisedproduct)
Inthiscase1%H2O2isformed.Itisextractedwithwater&
concentratedto30%(bymass)bydistillationunderreduced
pressure.Itcanbefurtherconcentratedto85%bycareful
distillationunderlowpressure.Theremainingwatercanbe
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
ThepurestateH2O2isanalmost
colourlessliquid
Metingpoint-272.4K.
Boilingpoint-423K
Vapourpressure(298K)1.9mmHg.
H2O2ismisciblewithwaterinallproportions&forms
ahydrateH2O2.H2O.
A30%solutionofH2O2ismarketedas100V
hydrogenperoxide.Itmeansthat1mlof30%H2O2
solutionwillgive100VofoxygenatSTP.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES:
Itactsasanoxidisingaswellasreducingagentin
bothacidic&alkalinemedia.
1.Oxidising action in acidic medium:
2Fe2++2H++H2O22Fe3++2H2O
PbS +4H2O2PbSO4+4H2O
2.Reducing action in acidic medium:
2MnO4-+6H++5H2O22Mn2++8H2O+5O2
HOCl +H2O2H3O++Cl-+O2
Cont.
3.Oxidising action in basic medium:
2Fe2++H2O22Fe3++2OHMn2++H2O2Mn4++2OH4.Reducing action in basic medium:
I2+H2O2+2OH-2I-+2H2O+O2
2MnO4-+3H2O22MnO2+3O2+2H2O+2OH-
STORAGE
H2O2decomposesslowlyonexposuretolight.
2H2O22H2O+O2
Inthepresenceofmetalsurfacesortracesof
alkali,theabovereactioniscatalysed.Itis,
thereforestoredinwax-linedglassorplastic
vesselsindark.
Itiskeptawayfromdustbecausedustcaninduce
explosivedecompositionofthecompound.
USES:
Itisusedashairbleach&asamilddisinfectant.Asan
antisepticitissoldinthemarketasperhydrol.
Itisusedtomanufacturechemicalslikesodium
perborate&per-carbonate,whichareusedinhigh
qualitydetergents.
Itisusedinthesynthesisofhydroquinone,tartaric
acid&certainfoodproducts&pharmaceuticalsetc.
Itisemployedintheindustriesasbleachingagentfor
textiles,paperpulp,leather,oils,fatsetc.
Itisalsousedinenvironmentalchemistry.
Y
V
A
R
E
H TE
A
HEAVY WATER,D2O
Itisextensivelyusedasamoderatorinnuclearreactors
&inexchangereactionsforthestudyofreaction
mechanisms.
Itcanbepreparedbyexhaustiveelectrolysisofwateror
asaby-productinsomefertilizerindustries.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
Molecularmass:20.0276g/mol.
Meltingpoint:276.8K.
Boilingpoint:374.4K.
Cont..
Thebottomicecubesweremadewithheavy
water,whichiswaterthatusesdeuterium
hydrogen(nucleuswithanextraneutron)not
regularhydrogenwhichhasnoneutron.
USES:
Itisusedforthepreparationofotherdeuterium
compounds.Fore.g.
CaC2+2D2OC2D2+Ca(OD)2
SO3+D2OD2SO4
Al4C3+12D2O3CD4+4Al(OD)3
PROJECT HYDROGEN
SUMMARY:1)Hydrogenisthemostabundantandsimplestelement
intheuniverse.
2)Hydrogenhasnoelasticity.
3)Hydrogenisflameable.
4)Hydrogenisenergycarrier.
5)Hydrogencanbecooledandstoredasaliquid.
6)Atomichydrogenishighlyreactive.
7)Nascenthydrogenisveryreactiveformofhydrogen.
Thank You
PPT Presented by
Name:-lokesh meena
class :-11th f
roll no :-19