Topic 3:

Perception and
Attribution

6-1
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Learning Objectives
After studying this chapter, you should be
able to:
Define perception and explain the factors
that influence it.
Explain attribution theory, and list the three
determinants of attribution.
Identify the shortcuts individuals use in
making judgments about others.
Contrast the three ethical decision criteria.
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LO 1

What Is Perception, and

Why Is It Important?

Perception
A process by which individuals organize and
interpret their sensory impressions in order to
give meaning to their environment.

Peoples
Peoplesbehavior
behavior isis based
based on
on their
their perception
perception of
of
what
what reality
reality is,
is, not
not on
on reality
reality itself.
itself.
The
The world
world as
as itit isis perceived
perceived isis the
the world
world that
that isis
behaviorally
behaviorally important.
important.
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LO 1

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LO 1

Perception

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LO 2

Person Perception: Making

Judgments
Attribution
Theory
About
Others
when we observe an individuals behavior, we attempt
to determine whether it was internally or externally
caused
Clarification of the differences between internal and
external causation:
Internally
Internallycaused
caused-- those
thosethat
thatare
arebelieved
believedtotobe
be
under
underthe
thepersonal
personalcontrol
controlofofthe
the
individual.
individual.
Externally
Externallycaused
caused-- resulting
resultingfrom
fromoutside
outsidecauses.
causes.
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LO 2

Person Perception: Making

Judgments About Others

How to determine whether it is internally or

externally caused?

Determination depends on three factors:

Distinctiveness:
Distinctiveness:shows
showsdifferent
differentbehaviors
behaviorsinindifferent
differentsituations.
situations.
Consensus:
Consensus:response
responseisisthe
thesame
sameas
asothers
otherstotosame
samesituation.
situation.
Consistency:
Consistency:responds
respondsininthe
thesame
sameway
wayover
overtime.
time.

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LO 2

Distinctiveness
Refers to whether an individual displays
different behaviors in different situations.
What we want to know is whether the
observed behavior is unusual.
If it is, the observer is likely to give the behavior an
external attribution.
If this action is not unusual, it will probably be judged as
internal.

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6-8

LO 2

Consensus
Occurs if everyone who is faced with a
similar situation responds in the same way.
If consensus is high, you would be expected
to give an external attribution to the
employees tardiness,
whereas if other employees who took the
same route made it to work on time, your
conclusion as to causation would be internal.

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6-9

LO 2

Consistency
in a persons actions.
Does the person respond the same way over
time?
The more consistent the behavior, the more
the observer is inclined to attribute it to
internal causes.

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6-10

LO 2

Attribution Theory

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LO 2

Errors and Biases in

Attributions

Fundamental Attribution Error

The tendency to underestimate the influence of
external factors and overestimate the influence
of internal factors when making judgments
about the behavior of others.
In general, we tend to blame the person first, not the
situation.

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LO 2

Errors and Biases in

Attributions (contd)

Self-Serving Bias
The tendency for individuals to attribute their
own successes to internal factors while putting
the blame for failures on external factors.
Thought: When student gets an A on an exam, they often say
they studied hard. But when they dont do well, how does the self
serving bias come into play?

Hint: Whose fault is it usually when an exam is tough?

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LO 3

Frequently Used Shortcuts

in Judging Others

Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the
basis of their interests, background, experience,
and attitudes.
Any characteristic that makes a person, object, or event
stand out will increase the probability that it will be
perceived.
Since we cant observe everything going on around us,
we engage in selective perception.

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LO 3

Frequently Used Shortcuts

in
Judging Others
Halo Effect
Drawing a general impression about an
individual on the basis of a single
characteristic

Contrast Effects
Evaluation of a persons characteristics
that are affected by comparisons with
other people recently encountered who
rank higher or lower on the same
characteristics
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LO 3

Frequently Used Shortcuts

in
Judging Others

Stereotyping
Judging someone on the basis of ones
perception of the group to which that person
belongs.
This is a means of simplifying a complex world, and it permits us
to maintain consistency.
We have to monitor ourselves to make sure were not unfairly
applying a stereotype in our evaluations and decisions.

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The
Shortcuts
Individuals
LO 3
Use in Making Judgments About
Others
Applications of Shortcuts in Organizations
Employment Interview
Evidence indicates that interviewers make
perceptual judgments that are often
inaccurate.
Interviewers
generally
draw
early
impressions that become very quickly
entrenched.
Studies indicate that most interviewers
decisions change very little after the first
four or five minutes of the interview.
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6-17

The
Shortcuts
Individuals
LO 3
Use in Making Judgments About
Others
Applications of Shortcuts in Organizations
Performance Expectations
Evidence demonstrates that people will
attempt to validate their perceptions of
reality, even when those perceptions are
faulty.
Self-fulfilling prophecy, or the Pygmalion
effect, characterizes the fact that peoples
expectations determine their behavior.
Expectations become reality.
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6-18

The
Shortcuts
Individuals
LO 3
Use in Making Judgments About
Others
Applications of Shortcuts in Organizations
Performance Evaluation
An employees performance appraisal is
very much dependent upon the perceptual
process.
Many jobs are evaluated in subjective
terms.
Subjective measures are problematic
because of selective perception, contrast
effects, halo effects, and so on.
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6-19

LO 3

Toward Reducing Bias and

Errors

Focus on goals.
Clear goals make decision making easier and help to
eliminate options inconsistent with your interests.
Look for information that disconfirms beliefs.
Overtly considering ways we could be wrong
challenges our tendencies to think were smarter than
we actually are.
Dont try to create meaning out of random events.
Dont attempt to create meaning out of coincidence.
Increase your options.
The number and diversity of alternatives generated
increases the chance of finding an outstanding one.

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LO 4

Ethical Decision Criteria

Utilitarianism decisions are made solely on

the basis of their outcomes or consequences.
Focus on rights calls on individuals to make
decisions
consistent
with
fundamental
liberties and privileges as set forth in
documents such as the Bill of Rights.
Protects whistle-blowers.
Impose and enforce rules fairly and impartially
to ensure justice or an equitable distribution of
benefits and costs.
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LO 4

Ethical Decision Criteria

Behavioral ethics an area of study

that analyzes how people actually behave
when confronted with ethical dilemmas.
Individuals do not always follow ethical
standards
promulgated
by
their
organizations,
and
we
sometimes
violate our own standards.
There are ways to increase ethical
decision making in organizations.
Consider cultural differences.
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Implications for Managers

To influence productivity, assess how your
employees perceive their jobs. Clue into employee
absenteeism, turnover, and job satisfaction levels
for indicators of their perception. Discuss their
perceptions about fairness, compensation, and
other abstract measures with them to clear up any
perceptual distortions.
Be aware of biases. Then try to minimize their
impact.
Try to enhance your creativity. Actively look for
novel solutions to problems, attempt to see
problems in new ways, use analogies, and hire
creative talent. Try to remove work and
organizational barriers that might impede your
creativity.
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