Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Genetics and
Cellular Function
Purines
O
Nucleotides
NH2
C
C
C
H
N
C
CH
HN
NH
NH
C
C
CH
NH2
Adenine (A)
Guanine (G)
Pyrimidines
H
C
Antiparallel
NH2
CH3
HC
C
N
N
H
O
C
HC
NH
N
H
Cytosine (C)
C
O
Thymine (T)
O
HN
C
O
(b)
N
H
CH
CH Uracil (U)
Figure 4.1b
4-2
Kinetochore
Centromere
Sister
chromatids
Figure 4.4b
4-3
(a)
Figure 4.5a
4-3
4-4
4-5
What Is a Gene?
Previous definition: genea segment of DNA that
carries the code for a particular protein
But body has millions of proteins and only about 20,000 genes
4-6
4-7
Protein Synthesis
When a gene is activated, messenger RNA
(mRNA) is made
mRNAcomplementary to gene
Migrates from the nucleus to cytoplasm where it codes for amino
acids
Transcription
Copying DNA into mRNA
RNA polymerase
Certain DNA base sequences signal start (e.g., TATATA)
RNA polymerase opens up the DNA helix and reads
bases from one strand of DNA
Makes corresponding mRNA
RNA polymerase rewinds the DNA helix behind it
Terminator sequence
RNA Processing
4-9
Gene (DNA)
1 Transcription
Intron Exon
Pre-mRN
A
A
2 Splicing
mRNA 1
A
mRNA 2
D
mRNA 3
E
3 Translation
Protein 1
Protein 2
Protein 3
Figure 4.6
4-10
Translation
Converts the language of nucleotides into the
language of amino acids
Three main participants in translation
mRNA
Transfer RNA (tRNA)
Ribosomes
Three steps
Initiation
Elongation
Termination
4-11
Translation
Initiation
mRNA binds to small ribosomal subunit
Initiator tRNA pairs with start codon (first AUG)
Large ribosomal subunit joins the complex and reads bases
Elongation
Termination
When ribosome reaches stop codon, a release factor binds
Finished protein breaks away from ribosome
Ribosome dissociates into two subunits
4-12
Translation
Figure 4.9
4-13
Translation
After translation, some proteins are packaged
and some are exported
Proteins headed for lysosomes or for secretion
are made on ribosomes on the rough ER
Newly made protein is threaded into rough ER where
it is modified and packaged into a transport vesicle
4-14
4-15
Protein formed by
ribosomes on rough ER.
2 Protein packaged into transport
vesicle, which buds from ER.
Nucleus
Ribosomes
Clathrin-coated
transport vesicle
Golgi
complex
Rough ER
Lysosome
Figure 4.11
4-16
Gene Regulation
Genes can be turned on and off
Cells can turn some genes permanently off
Example: liver cells turn off hemoglobin genes
4-17
Gene Regulation
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Prolactin
Prolactin
receptor
Casein
Exocytosis
ATP
Secretory
vesicles
ADP
+
Pi
6
Golgi
complex
Regulatory
protein
(transcription
activator)
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
5
3
4
Casein
gene
mRNA
for casein
RNA
polymerase
Figure 4.12
4-18
DNA Replication
Semi-conservative, bi-directional
Enzymes
Helicase
RNA Primase
DNA Polymerase III
DNA Polymerase I
Ligase
4-19
DNA Replication
Figure 4.14
4-20
4-21
Figure 4.15
4-22
Mitosis
4-23
Mitosis
Mitosis
Cytokinesisdivision of cytoplasm into two
cells
Telophase is the end of nuclear division but overlaps
cytokinesis
4-25
Diploid vs haploid
4-27
Genotype
Phenotype
Punnet squarediagram showing possible
genotype and phenotype outcomes from parents of
known genotype
4-28
Figure 4.18 b
4-29
Incomplete dominance
Heterozygous individual shows phenotype intermediate
between traits each allele would have produced alone
Example: familial hypercholesterolemia
4-30
Polygenic Inheritance
Figure 4.19
4-31
Pleiotropy
Figure 4.20
Sex Linkage
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
X
Female (XX)
Genotype Cc
Normal vision
Male (XY)
Genotype c
Color blindness
Figure 4.21
4-33
Environmental Effects
Phenylalanine
(amino acid)
Tyrosine
Enzyme 1
Melanin
(pigment)
Enzyme 2
From diet
(environment)
Phenotype
(brown eyes)
mRNA 1
Genes
(DNA)
mRNA 2
Figure 4.22
4-34
4-35
Epigenetics
Examines nongenetic changes that alter gene
expression and can be passed to offspring
Gene expression is changed without genetic mutation to
base sequence
DNA methylationmechanism of epigenetic change in
which methyl groups are added to DNA
Often silences the gene
Inappropriate DNA methylation implicated in some forms of
cancer
4-36
Cancer
Malignant tumors cause
cancer
Fast growing, tend to
metastasizeto give off
cells that spread and seed
the growth of tumors
elsewhere
Distinguished from slow
growing, encapsulated
benign tumors
Figure 4.23
4-37
Cancer
Oncologymedical specialty dealing with tumors
Tumor angiogenesisgrowth of blood vessels by
energy-hungry tumors
Cancers are named for tissue of origin
4-38
Cancer
Carcinogensenvironmental cancer-causing
agents
Radiationultraviolet rays, X-rays
Chemicalcigarette tar, food preservatives, industrial
chemicals
Viruseshuman papillomavirus, hepatitis C, and type 2
herpes simplex
Cancer
Oncogenes
Cause cell division to accelerate out of control
Excessive production of growth factors or growth-factor receptors
that stimulate mitosis
4-40
Cancer
Wilms tumor
Malignant tumor of
the kidney occurring
especially in children
Figure 4.24
4-41
4-42