Cellular Metabolism

Chapter 4

Cellular Metabolism
Cellular

metabolism refers to all of the

chemical processes that occur inside
living cells.

Energy
Energy

can exist in two states:

Kinetic

energy energy of motion.

Potential energy stored energy.
Chemical

energy potential energy stored in

bonds, released when bonds are broken.

Energy

can be transformed form one

state to another.

Energy
The

ultimate source
of energy for most
living things is the
sun.

Laws of Thermodynamics
First

law of thermodynamics energy cannot

be created or destroyed only transformed.
Second law of thermodynamics a closed
system moves toward entropy, increasing
disorder.

Living systems are open systems that maintain

organization and increase it during development.

Free Energy
Free

energy the energy available for

doing work.
Most

chemical reactions release free energy

they are exergonic.
Downhill

Some

reactions require the input of free

energy they are endergonic.
Uphill

Enzymes
Bonds

must be destabilized before any

reaction can occur even exergonic.
Activation

energy must be supplied so that

the bond will break.
Heat

increases rate at which molecules collide.

Catalysts can lower activation energy.

Enzymes
Catalysts

are chemical substances that

speed up a reaction without affecting the
products.
Catalysts are not used up or changed in
any way during the reaction.
Enzymes are important catalysts in
living organisms.

Enzymes
Enzymes

reduce the
amount of activation
energy required for a
reaction to proceed.
Enzymes

are not
used up or altered.
Products are not
altered.
Energy released is
the same.

Enzymes
Enzymes

may be pure proteins or

proteins plus cofactors such as metallic
ions or coenzymes, organic group that
contain groups derived from vitamins.

Enzyme Function
An

enzyme works by binding with its

substrate, the molecule whose reaction is
catalyzed.
The

active site is the location on the enzyme

where the substrate fits.
Enzyme + Substrate = ES complex.

Enzyme Specificity

Enzymes are highly specific.

There is an exact molecular fit between enzyme and

substrate.
Some enzymes work with only one substrate, others
work with a group of molecules.
Succinic dehydrogenase oxidizes only succinic acid.
Proteases will act on any protein, although they still have
a specific point of attack.

Enzyme-Catalyzed Reactions
Enzyme-catalyzed

reversible.

reactions are

Indicated

by double arrows in reactions.

Tend to go mostly in one direction.
Reactions

tend to be catalyzed by
different enzymes for each direction.
Catabolic

(degradation) reaction catalyzed

by enzyme A.
Anabolic (synthesis) reaction catalyzed by
enzyme B.

Importance of ATP
Endergonic

reactions require energy to

proceed.
Coupling an energy-requiring reaction
with an energy-yielding reaction can
drive endergonic reactions.
ATP is the most common intermediate in
coupled reactions.

Importance of ATP
ATP

consists of
adenosine (adenine
+ ribose) and a
triphosphate group.
The

bonds between
the phosphate
groups are high
energy bonds.
A-P~P~P

Importance of ATP
Phosphates

have
negative charges.
Takes

lots of energy
to hold 3 in a row!
Ready to spring
apart.
So, ATP is very
reactive.

Importance of ATP
A coupled

reaction
is a system of two
reactions linked by an
energy shuttle ATP.
Substrate B is a fuel
like glucose or lipid.
ATP is not a
storehouse of energy
used as soon as its
available.

Oxidation Reduction - Redox

An

atom that loses

an electron has been
oxidized. Oxygen is
a common electron
acceptor.
An atom that gains
an electron has been
reduced. Higher
energy.

Redox Reactions
Redox

reactions always occur in pairs.

One

atom loses the electron, the other

gains the electron.

Energy

is transferred from one atom to

another via redox reactions.

Cellular Respiration
Cellular

respiration the oxidation of

food molecules to obtain energy.
Electrons

are stripped away.

Different from breathing (respiration).

Cellular Respiration
Aerobic

versus Anaerobic
Metabolism
Heterotrophs
Aerobes:

Use molecular oxygen as the final

electron acceptor
Anaerobes: Use other molecules as final
electron acceptor

Energy yield much lower ATP yield

Cellular Respiration
When

oxygen acts as the final electron

acceptor (aerobes):
Almost 20 times more energy is released than if
another acceptor is used (anaerobes).
Advantage of aerobic metabolism:

Smaller quantity of food required to maintain given

rate of metabolism.

Aerobic Respiration
In

aerobic respiration, ATP forms as

electrons are harvested, transferred along
the electron transport chain and
eventually donated to O2 gas.
Oxygen

is required!
Glucose is completely oxidized.
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6H2O + energy (heat
or ATP)
Glucose
Oxygen Carbon
Water
Dioxide

Cellular Respiration - 3 Stages

Food is digested to break it into

smaller pieces no energy
production here.
Glycolysis coupled reactions used
to make ATP.

Occurs in cytoplasm
Doesnt require O2

Oxidation harvests electrons and

uses their energy to power ATP
production.

Only in mitochondria
More powerful

Anaerobic Respiration
Anaerobic

respiration occurs in the

absence of oxygen.
Different

electron acceptors are used

instead of oxygen (sulfur, or nitrate).
Sugars are not completely oxidized, so it
doesnt generate as much ATP.

Glycolysis
Glycolysis

the first stage in cellular

respiration.
A

series of enzyme catalyzed reactions.

Glucose converted to pyruvic acid.
Small number of ATPs made (2 per glucose
molecule), but it is possible in the absence
of oxygen.
All living organisms use glycolysis.

Glycolysis

Uphill portion primes the fuel

with phosphates.

Fuel is cleaved into 3-C

sugars which undergo
oxidation.

Uses 2 ATPs

NAD+ accepts e-s & 1 H+ to

produce NADH
NADH serves as a carrier to
move high energy e-s to the
final electron transport chain.

Downhill portion produces 2

ATPs per 3-C sugar (4 total).

Net production of 2 ATPs per

glucose molecule.

Glycolysis
Summary

of the enzymatically catalyzed

reactions in glycolysis:

Glucose + 2ADP + 2Pi + 2 NAD+

2 Pyruvic acid + 2 NADH + 2ATP

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3GTjQTqUuOw&list=FL9N_Px072WuVorSwDfqf-9w&index=4&feature=plpp

Harvesting Electrons form

Chemical Bonds
When

oxygen is available, a second

oxidative stage of cellular respiration
takes place.
First

step oxidize the 3-carbon pyruvate

in the mitochondria forming Acetyl-CoA.
Next, Acetyl-CoA is oxidized in the Krebs
cycle.

Producing Acetyl-CoA

The 3-carbon pyruvate

loses a carbon
producing an acetyl
group.
Electrons are transferred
to NAD+ forming NADH.
The acetyl group
combines with CoA
forming Acetyl-CoA.
Ready for use in Krebs
cycle.

The Krebs Cycle

The

Krebs cycle is the next stage in oxidative

respiration and takes place in the mitochondria.
Acetyl-CoA joins cycle, binding to a 4-carbon
molecule to form a 6-carbon molecule.
2 carbons removed as CO2, their electrons donated to
NAD+, 4-carbon molecules left.

2 NADH produced.

More electrons are extracted and the original 4carbon material is regenerated.

1 ATP, 1 NADH, and 1 FADH2 produced.

The Krebs Cycle

Each

glucose provides 2 pyruvates,

therefore 2 turns of the Krebs cycle.
Glucose is completely consumed during
cellular respiration.

The Krebs Cycle

Acetyl unit + 3 NAD+ + FAD + ADP + Pi
2 CO2 + 3 NADH + FADH2 + ATP

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-cDFYXc9Wko

Using Electrons to Make ATP

NADH

& FADH2 contain

energized electrons.
NADH molecules carry
their electrons to the
inner mitochondrial
membrane where they
transfer electrons to a
series of membrane
bound proteins the
electron transport
chain.

Building an Electrochemical
Gradient
In

eukaryotes, aerobic metabolism takes

place in the mitochondria in virtually all
cells.
The Krebs cycle occurs in the matrix, or
internal compartment of the
mitochondrion.
Protons (H+) are pumped out of the
matrix into the intermembrane space.

Producing ATP- Chemiosmosis

A strong

gradient with
many protons outside
the matrix and few
inside is set up.
Protons are driven back
into the matrix.
They

must pass
through special
channels that will drive
synthesis of ATP.
Oxidative

phosphorylation

Electron Transport Review

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kN5MtqAB_Yc&list=FL9N_Px072WuVorSwDfqf-9w&index=2&feature=plpp

Review of Cellular Respiration

1

ATP generated for each proton pump

activated by the electron transport chain.
NADH

activates 3 pumps.
FADH2 activates 2 pumps.
The

2 NADH produced during glycolysis

must be transported across the
mitochondrial membrane using 2 ATP.
Net

ATP production = 4

Glucose + 2 ATP + 36 ADP + 36 Pi + 6 O2

6CO2 + 2 ADP + 36 ATP + 6 H2O

Fermentation
In

the absence of oxygen, the endproduct of glycolysis, pyruvate, is used

in fermentation.
During

glycolysis, all the NAD+ becomes

saturated with electrons (NADH). When this
happens, glycolysis will stop.
2

NADH and 2 ATP produced.

Pyruvate

is used as the electron acceptor

resetting the NAD+ for use in glycolysis.

Fermentation 2 Types

Animals add extracted

electrons to pyruvate
forming lactate.

Reversible when
oxygen becomes
available.
Muscle fatigue

Yeasts, single-celled
fungi, produce ethanol.

Present in wine & beer.

Alcoholic fermentation

Metabolism of Lipids

Triglycerides are broken down into glycerol and 3 fatty

acid chains.
Glycerol enters glycolysis.
Fatty acids are oxidized and 2-C molecules break off
as acetyl-CoA.

Oxidation of one 18-C stearic acid will net 146 ATP.

Oxidation of three glucose (18 Cs) nets 108 ATP.
Glycerol nets 22 ATP, so 1 triglyceride nets 462 ATP.

Metabolism of Proteins
Proteins

digested in the gut into amino acids

which are then absorbed into blood and
extracellular fluid.
Excess proteins can serve as fuel like
carbohydrates and fats.
Nitrogen

is removed producing carbon

skeletons and ammonia.
Carbon

skeletons oxidized.

Metabolism of Proteins
Ammonia

is highly
toxic, but soluble.
Can

be excreted
by aquatic
organisms as
ammonia.

Terrestrial

organisms must
detoxify it first.

Regulating Cellular Respiration

Rate

of cellular respiration slows down

when your cells have enough ATP.
Enzymes that are important early in the
process have an allosteric (regulating)
site that will bind to ATP.
When lots of ATP is present, it will bind
to this site, changing the shape of the
enzyme, halting cellular respiration.

Regulating Cellular Respiration

Enzyme

activity is controlled by presence or

absence of metabolites that cause
conformational changes in enzymes.
Improves

catalyst.

or decreases effectiveness as