THE ART OF

CRYOGENICS
Low-Temperature Experimental
Techniques

Ramnarong WANISON.

Outline

Meaning of Vacuum
Units of measurement
Vapour pressure
Levels of Vacuum
Gas Composition
Flow Regimes
Mean Free Path (MFP)
Conductance of a pipe
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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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What
is a vacuum?
A vacuum is a space entirely devoid of matter
(absolute vacuum).
In practice we talk about a vacuum when the air
pressure in a space lies below atmospheric pressure.

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Units
of measurement
Atmospheric Pressure (Standard) =
0

Gauge pressure (psig)

14.7

Pounds per square inch (psia)

29.9

Inches of mercury

760

Millimeter of mercury

760

torr

760,000

Millitorr or microns

101,325

Pascal

1.013

bar

1,013

millibar

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Pressure Conversion
Table

Torr

Mbar

Pa

Micron

PSI

1 Torr

1.33

1.33

1000

1.9x10-2

1 mbar

0.751

100

750

1.4x10-2

9x10-4

1x10-2

7.5

1.4x10-4

9x10-6

1 micron
(m Torr)

1x10-3

1.3x10-3

1.3x10-1

1.9x10-5

1.3x10-6

1 psi (a)

51.72

68.96

6.89x103

5.17x104

7x10-2

1 atm

760

1013

1.01x105

7.6x105

14.7

1 Pa

7.51x10-

ATM
1.32x103

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Vapour pressure

Variation in atmospheric pressure with altitude, computed

The line on the graph shows the boiling temperature for w
for 15C and 0% relative humidity.

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Vapour pressure

volatile;
Easily evaporated at
normal temperatures.

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Levels of Vacuum

Rough
Atm. to 10-3
torr
mol/cm3

High
10-3 to 10-8 torr
760 torr (atm)

1 x 10-3 torr

3 x 1019

4 x 1013

Ultrahig
h
-12
10x-810
to-910
torr
1
torr

4 x 1017

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Gas
Composition
Pressure (torr)

Composition

atm

Wet Air

10-3

Water vapor (75% - 85%)

10-6

H2O , CO

High

10-9

H2O , CO , N2 , H2

Ultra High

10-10

CO , H2

10-11

H2

Rough

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Rough
Vacuum
Roughing remove original atmosphere
Gases move in viscous flow
Chamber volume and pump speed determine pump down time
Comparison is same as original environment (80% N2: 20% O2)

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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High
Vacuum
Gases originate from wall/surfaces
Gases move in molecular flow
MFP > chamber dimensions
Gases are at thermal speeds
Surface area, material type and pump speed
determine pressure
Comparison is constant through high vacuum
(80% H2O and 20% N2 , CO , H2 , CO2)

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Ultra
High Vacuum
Gases originate from wall/surfaces
diffuse out of vessel materials
permeate through vessel materials released within
UHV pumps
Gases move in molecular flow
Surface area, material type , pump speed and
temperature determine ultimate pressure and pump
down times
Primary source of gas is H2 (below 1x 10-10 torr)

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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iscous
and Molecular Flow

Viscous Flow

Molecular Flow

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Flow
Regimes

Viscous Flow (Laminar)

Viscous Flow (Turbulent)

Transition Flow

Molecular Flow

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

Flow
Regimes
Technology
Viscous Flow
Distance between particles is small; collision between gas
particle dominate; flow through momentum transfer;
generally pressure greater than 0.1 torr
Transition Flow
Region between viscous and molecular flow
Molecular Flow
Distance between particles is large; collision between gas
particle and wall dominate; flow through random motion;
generally pressure smaller than 10-3 torr
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Basic Principles of Vacuum

Flow
Regimes
Technology
Viscous Flow
Distance between particles is small; collision between gas
particle dominate; flow through momentum transfer;
generally pressure greater than 0.1 torr
Transition Flow
Region between viscous and molecular flow
Molecular Flow
Distance between particles is large; collision between gas
particle and wall dominate; flow through random motion;
generally pressure smaller than 10-3 torr
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Basic Principles of Vacuum

Flow
Regimes
Technology
Viscous Flow ;

Transition Flow ;
and 1
Molecular Flow ;

is less than 0.01

is between 0.01

is greater than 1

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

Knudsens
Number (Kn)
Technology

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Mean
Free Path (MFP)
Mean free Path is the average distance a gas molecule
travel before
it collides with another gas molecule

Moving Particles (mean free

path)

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

Mean
Free Path (MFP)
Technology
The average distance traveled between collisions, or
average mean free path depends on the size of the gas
particle and number of particles present (density or
pressure).

Where;

d
n

is the molecular diameter in centimeters

is the number of particles per cubic centimeter

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

Mean
Free Path (MFP)
Technology
In the case of an ideal gas:

Where;

kB
p

is the Boltzman constant

is the gas prssure

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

Mean
Free Path (MFP)
Technology

Mean Free Path of some

gases as function of pressure

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

onductance
(C) of a pipe
Technology

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Conductance of an orifice and of a pipe for molecular flow
The conductance for the orifice of area A

The conductance of a pipe of length L and diameter D L >> D

Orifice

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Conductance of an orifice and of a pipe for viscous flow
The conductance of a long pipe for the laminar flow of an incompressible gas is given by the
Poiseuille equation

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Basic Principles of Vacuum

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Conductance of an orifice and of a pipe for molecular flow

Schematic diagram of conductance

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