ALVEOLAR

PROCESS

CLASSIFICATION OF
o BONES:
Based on their shape:
Long bones: longer than wider. Include bones of arm, legs, palms
and soles.
contains a tubular diaphysis or shaft and at the periphery it
contains bulky ends called as epiphysis which is covered by
hyaline cartilage.
epiphyseal line is present between the dia and epiphysis. It is
remnant of epiphyseal plate
Short bones: these are of equal length and width. Contain bone
marrow but no marrow cavity. Includes bones of wrist (carpals)
and ankle (tarsals)
Flat bones: are thin, flat and curved. Include bones of sternum,
ribs , scapula, clavicle, parietal, temporal and occipital

Irregular bones: have complex shapes. May be notched or with

ridges. Mainly composed of spongy bone. These include bones
of vertebrae, facial bones, pelvic bones and mandible
Sesamoid bones: bone develop in tendons. Include bones like
patella

o Based on development:

Endochondral bone: formed by replacement of hyaline cartilage

by bone. Occurs in bones of trunk and extremities
Intramembranous bone: replacement of connective tissue
membrane with bone. Occurs in cranial and facial flat bones
of skull, mandible and clavicles

o Based on their microscopic structure:

Mature bone : it is further divided as

1. Compact or cortical or lamellar bone
2. Cancellous or spongy bone honeycomb
appearance with large marrow cavities trabeculae
arranged as sheets or bars
Woven or immature bone: it is the first formed bone.
contains irregularly oriented collagen fibers and
numerous osteocytes (due to rapid rate of formation)

Development of maxilla and

mandible
MAXILLA:
o In humans maxilla is homologous to 2 bones premaxilla and
o
o
o

maxilla proper
Premaxilla in most of the animals is a separate bone carrying
the incisors and forming the anterior part of hard palate.
Ossification center for premaxilla an maxilla may be separate
or common to both.
In humans premaxilla is absent. The premaxilla and maxilla
proper are separated by incisive fissure which extends from
incisive foramen to canine.
The incisive fissure is predominantly seen in young skulls.

MANDIBLE:
o During the 6th week of IU mandible appear bilaterally as a thin plate
o

of bone lateral to Meckels cartilage.

Meckels cartilage is a cylindrical rod of cartilage whose proximal
end gives rise to malleus and incus while the distal end is bent and is
in contact with the cartilage of opposite side.
Greater part of the cartilage disappears without much contribution to
bone formation. Only small amount of cartilage near to the midline is
the site for endochondral ossification.
During fetal life mandible is a paired bone. Right and left mandiblesa
are joined in midline by fibrocartilage which is not derived from the
Meckels cartilage but differentiates from connective tissue in midline.
In the cartilage small irregular bones called as mental ossicles
develop and at end of the 1st year they fuse with the mandibular body.
At the same time 2 mandibular halves unite by ossification of
symphyseal fibrocartilage

BONE
o COMPOSITION:
Mineral component include hydroxyapatite
o
o
o
o
o
o

crystals which are

arranged in form of thin plates or leaf like structures.
Thy are packed with their long axis parallel to collagen fibers. Ions
present are Ca, P, OH, CO3 and minute amounts of other minerals.
Organic matrix is known as osteoid and made of collagen and
noncollagenous proteins.
Collagen mainly composed of type 1 along with type5.
Alveolar bone contains type 1, 5,3 and 9. Sharpeys fibers contain
type 3 with type 1collagen.
type 3 and 9 are produced by fibroblasts during the formation of
periodontal ligament. Type1, 5 and 9 are expressed by osteoblasts
In woven bone fibers are interwoven with greater interfibrillar
space while in mature bone fibers are arranged as sheets that are
oriented perpendiculor to each other

NON COLLAGENOUS
PROTEINS:
Most are endogenous proteins are produced by bone cells while

some are derived from blood

o OSTEOCALCIN also known as bone gla protein.
It is regulated by vitamin d3 and PTH. It plays a role in resorption
as it acts as a chemoattractant to osteoclast. It also acts as
calcium binding protein.
o OSTEOPONTIN AND BONE SIALOPROTEIN priorly termed
as bone sialoprotein 1 and 2
Aspartate is predominant in osteopontin while glutamic acid is
predominant in bone sialoprotein.
Bone sialoprotein functions in initiation of crystal formation while
osteopontin is potent inhibitor of hydroxyapatite crystal growth.
o OSTEONECTIN it is calcium binding glycoprotein. Plays a role
in regulation of cell adhesion and proliferation

BONE HISTOLOGY:
o Bones have an outer sheet of compact bone and central medullary
o
o

o
o

cavity which is filled with trabecular or spongy or cancellous bone

Outer aspect of compact bone is surrounded by condensed
fibrocollagenous layer called as periosteum
Periosteum has 2 layers outer layer of dense irregular connective
tissue called as fibrous layer and inner layer of bone cells and their
precursors
Inner surface of compact and cancellous bone are lined by thin
cellular layer called as endosteum.
Near the periosteal and endosteal surfaces, lamellae are arranged
in parallel layers surrounding the bone surface called as
circumferential lamellae.
Deep to the circumferential lamellae, lamellae are arranged as
small concentric layers around a central vascular canal. These
lamellae are called as concentric lamellae

o Haversian canals + concentric lamellae - osteon or

haversian system
o Adjacent haversian canals are interconnected by
volkamanns canals which contain blood vessels.
o Osteon is basic metabolic unit of bone.
o Osteocytes are located in lacunae. Small canaliculi
radiate from lacunae to haversian canal. Canaliculi
connect all osteocytes in osteon together

oInterstial lamellae
remnants of osteons
left behind during
remodelling

oReversal line it is a
cemental
line
which
demarcates
haversian
canals. It contains little or
no collagen and is
strongly basophilic due to
high
content
of
glycoproteins
and
proteoglycans. It appears
irregular as it is formed by
scalloped
outline
of
howships lacunae.

oResting line it
denotes the period of
rest
during
the
formation of bone. This
has
more
regular
appearance.

SPONGY BONE:
o Both spongy and compact bone has same cellular and

intercellular matrix but differ in arrangements.

o Bone consists of large slender spicules called trabeculae
which are oriented along the stress lines
o Marrow spaces are large and trabeculae derive nutrition
from the marrow spaces.

DEVELOPMENT OF ALVEOLAR
PROCESS:
o By the end of 2nd month IU both maxilla and mandible

forms a groove which opens towards the oral cavity.

This groove contains the tooth germs.
o Bony septa gradually develops between the adjacent
tooth germs. The mandibular canal is separated from
the crypts by horizontal plate of bone.
o It is
called as chondroid bone as it has
characteristics of both bone and cartilage.
o Alveolar process forms with development of teeth and
eruption while it diminishes after loss of teeth.

STRUCTURE OF ALVEOLAR
PROCESS:
o Alveolar process is defined as part of maxilla and mandible that

forms and supports the sockets of teeth. As such there is no

distinct boundary between the alveolar body and process.
o 2 parts of alveolar one can be distinguished. First is a thin
lamella of bone that surround the root and gives attachment to
principal fibers of PDL alveolar bone proper
Other part is the bone that surround alveolar bone proper and
gives support to the socket supporting alveolar bone
o Supporting alveolar bone has 2 parts cortical plates and
spongy bone. Cortical plates consist of compact bone and forms
the outer and inner plates of alveolar process while the spongy
bone fills the area between these plates and alveolar bone
proper.

o Cortical plates are much thinner in the maxilla than in mandible.

o
o

o
o

They are thickest in the premolar and molar region of mandible

especially on the buccal side.
In maxilla the outer cortical plate is perforated by numerous small
openings through which blood vessels enter.
In anterior teeth region of both jaws the supporting bone is very thin.
No spongy bone is found here and cortical plate is fused directly to
alveolar bone proper.
The interdental and interradicular septa contains perforating canals
of Zuckerkandl and Hirschfeld . These canals house blood vessels
and nerves.
Histologically cortical plate contain longitudinal lamellae and
haversian systems
Alveolar process is divided in to 2 types type1 in which the
interdental and interradicular trabeculae are regular and horizontal
in ladder like arrangement. Type 2 shows irregularly arranged
numerous delicate interdental and interradicular trabeculae

o Both types show variation in thickness of trabeculae and size of

marrow spaces.
o Type 1 architecture is seen mandible while type 2 is seen in maxilla.

From the apical part of socket of lower molars trabeculae are seen
radiating in slightly distal direction
o Marrow spaces in the alveolar process contains hematopoietic marrow
but usually contains fatty marrow.
o Alveolar bone proper which forms the inner wall of the socket is

perforated by an openings carrying blood vessels. Hence it is called as

cribriform plate
o Alveolar bone proper contains partly of lamellate bone and partly of
bundle bone. Bundle bone is that bone in which principal fibers of
PDL.
o Bundle bone is characterized by scarcity of fibrils in the intercellular
substance. These fibers are arranged 90 to sharpeys fibers
Bundle bone consists of fewer fibrils than lamellated bone . It contains
more calcium salts per unit area than other types of bone tissue

CELLS OF BONE:
o OSTEOBLASTS:

these differentiate from progenitor or precursor cells of the

connective tissue. Their structure is similar to actively secreting
cell containing more amount of golgi complex, mitochondria,
RER, nucleus and many secretory vesicles.
They secrete type 1 collagen and also non collagenous proteins.
They secrete the organic matrix of bone called as osteoid.during
the bone formation some of the osteoblasts become embedded
and form osteocytes.
In areas of bone formation always the mineralisation lags to the
matrix deposition.
In H&E sections the mineralized bone appears as basophilic
while the osteoid appears as eosinophilic.

o OSTEOCLASTS:

Derived from circulating blood cells (monocytes)

these are multinucleated giant cells containing 12 or more
number of nuclei. Cell body is irregular club or oval shape
with many branching process.
They are found in bay like depressions of bone called as
HOWSHIPS LACUNAE
These cells have prominent mitochondria, lysosomes, vacoules,
and little RER. Part of cell in contact with bone shows
ruffled border which the site of major activity.
Ruffled border is surrounded by clear zone which has no
organelles but only fine granular cytoplasm and
microfilaments.

bone resorption:
o During the bone resorption 3 process are noted in order:

1. decalcification
2. matrix degradation 3. transport of soluble
products to ECF.
Decalcification occurs at the ruffled borders of osteoclasts by
secretion of organic acids like citric and lactic acid. They chelate
the bone and H+increases the solubility of HAP.
Matrix degradation this is by activity of cathepsin-B1 and
collagenases. Collagenolytic activity occurs outside the osteoclast .
The broken fragmentsof collagen are further decalcified by other
proteases.
Transport mechanism is not known
o Area of resorption is called as cutting cone or resorption tunnel.
o Scalloped outline of howships lacunae that turn their convexity
towards the old bone is visible as reversal llines
o Cementing lines seen towards the apposition side is called as resting
lines