ENVT 601

Introduction to Environmental
Technology
Chapter 6
Drinking Water

Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

Enacted in 1974: sets Minimum Standards
for potable water, e.g., water safe to
consume; public health protection goal.
Applies to public water supply systems
Public Water System is defined as:
Having 15 or more service connections, OR
serving 25 or more people each day for at
least 60 days per year.
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SDWA
Administered by US-EPA and States with
Primacy.
NYS: NYS Department of Health oversees
drinking water with help of local Health
Depts.
1996 Amendments:

Increases regulation of microbial contaminants

Regulates disinfection by-products
Public notification within 24 hr for water issues
Database for unregulated contaminants in water
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Two Source Waters

Surface Water: water collected on surface
of earth; streams, lakes, rivers, reservoirs,
oceans, etc. (source for ~ 50% of public
water supplies)
Groundwater: water trapped beneath the
earths surface; usually stored in aquifers.
Groundwater is the most significant source of
freshwater after glaciers; most significant
source of drinking water; especially rural areas.
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Drinking Water Treatment

SDWA regulates both surface water
and groundwater treatment for drinking
water.
Surface water requires greater
treatment than groundwater.
All drinking water needs to be
disinfected unless waivers are
obtained.
Groundwater may only require
disinfection prior to distribution to
customers
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Potable Drinking Water

Potable Water: meets minimum standards
Aesthetically pleasing: no odor, color or taste
SURFACE WATER: more vulnerable to pollutants
but more easily diluted.
Must undergo clarification & disinfection process

CLARIFICATION
Coagulation flocculation
Sedimentation
Filtration

DISINFECTION
Chlorination; ozone; ultraviolet radiation (UV); reverse
osmosis (RO); microfiltration;
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Drinking Water Treatment Process Flow Diagram

Surface Water Supplies

Figure 6.2, pg. 150

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Drinking Water Standards

Primary & Secondary Standards
PRIMARY STDs:
Sets maximum levels of potentially harmful
substances in drinking water
Legally enforceable limits

SECONDARY STDs:
Sets aesthetic guidelines
Can include certain contaminants such as
salt (chlorides).
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Primary Standards
Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs)
Can be numerical limits
Can be treatment techniques (TTs), (ex., corrosion
control through buffering)

Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs)

Set to define level at which no health risk is posed

Drinking Water Standards set through

combination of health protection, detection
limits and economic affordability.
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Primary MCLs
MCLs based partly on health effects from water
consumption:
2 Liters of water consumed for 70 years by a person
weighing ~ 160 lbs.
one in a million health risk

Does not take into account greater risk for

sensitive individuals or cumulative effects
from multiple sources or multiple chemicals
Cancer is main health risk of concern
Also considers cost & ease of identification of
contaminants.
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Primary Contaminants

Organic chemicals
Inorganic chemicals
Microorganisms
Turbidity
Radionuclides

(Part 5 of NYS Health Code

sets Drinking Water
Standards)
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Organic Chemicals
Synthetic Organic Chemicals (SOCs)
Petroleum-based chemicals
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): readily
evaporate
Tested for at least once every 3 years.
May depend on water quality history
In New York, tested more frequently
Cancer Concern from exposure
Groundwater Quality issue: GW more vulnerable
Measured usually in parts per billion
ppb; or micro-grams per liter (g/L)
See pg. 152, Table 6.1
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Inorganic Chemicals
Non-organic (not containing Carbon)
Mainly metals, heavy metals, nutrients
Arsenic (10 ppb by 2006)
Cadmium (5 ppb)
Copper (TT - buffering water)
(1.3 mg/L) Action Level triggering buffering

Lead (TT - buffering water)

(0.015 mg/L) Action Level triggering buffering

Nitrate (10 ppm)

Mercury (2 ppb)

Tested for once per year.

Can be tested more frequently in NY
Serious health consequences from exposure
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Microorganisms
Bacteria, Viruses, & Protozoa
Total coliform group is indicator for
pathogens in general
# of Monthly samples for Total Coliform
based on population served
Limited to 5% of samples in 1 month.
Presence/absence concept replaces # of
coliforms detected in sample
Coliform-positive must be tested for E.coli or
fecal coliform
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Organisms of Special Interest

Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR)
Requires all surface water systems to filter water
supplies & disinfect
NYC has filtration waiver due to watershed rules

Regulated Pathogens
Legionella (respiratory disease)
Giardia lamblia (gastrointestinal illness)
99.9% reduction
MCGL = 0

Cryptosporidium parvum (gastrointestinal illness)

99.0% reduction
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US EPA Rule Making

EPA continues to try to increase regulatory
oversight of drinking water as required by
SDWA (progress is very slow).
Surface Water Enhanced Treatment Rules
Groundwater Rule
Contaminants Candidates List (CCL)
104 chemicals/ 12 microbials found in public
supplies/ not regulated

Other Contaminants of Concern

MTBE; Perchlorate; Radon; Sulphate.
See Blackboard for Fact Sheets on these rules.
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NEW YORK CITY WATERSHED

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The Marcellus Shale Formation in the Northeast

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20

Extraction Technologies

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Turbidity
Suspended particles must be reduced
Limit is 0.3 NTU (nephelometer
turbidity units) for 95% of samples per
month (can never exceed 1 NTU).
Health issue: turbidity interferes with
disinfection, special issue with
Cryptosporidium p. which is chlorineresistant

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Range of Turbidity Samples

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Radionuclides
Radionuclides come from natural sources,
waste discharges or spills
Ionizing Radiation (alpha & beta particles;
gamma radiation) is regulated.
- Main health risk is cancer, organ & cellular
damage
Tritium: beta emitter, groundwater contaminant.
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Radionuclides, contd
Radon: water contamination mainly
from Radon gas, naturally released
from granite, other geologic
formations.
Exposure to Radon more frequent &
significant from air sources rather
than water.
Water Systems must test for alpha
radionuclides.
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Radiation Standards
MCLs:

5 pCi/L (picocuries/Liter): radium

15 pCi/L: other alpha emitters
4 mrem/year: all beta emitters
30 g/L: uranium
monitor all water entering the system,
not just representative locations

Radon: no standard yet

Proposed: 300 pCi/L
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Radon Risk in US

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Ways Radon Can

Enter a House

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Secondary MCLs
Mainly address aesthetic qualities of
water.
Includes metals, minerals, physical
properties, dissolved solids.
States can set stronger standards than
EPA.
Includes chlorides related to saltwater
intrusion; a groundwater issue.
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Saltwater
Intrusion can
contaminate
nearby
freshwater
supplies in
coastal areas,
including Long
Island and New
Jersey.

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Drinking Water Standards Do Not Cover

all Pollutants
Water is not tested for all pollutants that
may be present; for example
Viruses and other pathogens
PPCPs
Many pesticides (ex., Atrazine)
Many hormone disrupting chemicals
Consumer products: fire retardants, Teflon,
Caffeine, DEET
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Water Quality Testing

Testing schedule complicated;
depends on several factors like

Population served
Prior detection
Suspected Risk
Specific to contaminant
Variety of testing sites as water enters
system and moves through system
Sampling protocols related to specific
pollutant (flush sample vs. first draw
for lead & copper)
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Record Keeping
Part of job is to keep good records on water
system practices and water quality
conditions.
Records: Water test results, esp. bacteria &
pollutants, must be carefully kept.
Record: name, date & place of sampling;
technicians name who took sample; type of
sample; & place, method & results of
analysis.
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MCL Violations/Public Notice

Annual Water Quality Reports: national
mandate to annually report on water
quality.
New York has stronger requirements.
Violations: notify state within 48 hrs.
Notify public after MCL violation confirmed;
days or weeks after problem discovered by
TV, newspapers, mail. (see pg. 156, Figure
6.3 of textbook)
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The
multiple
steps
used for
traditional
surface
water
treatment
for
drinking
water.

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Surface Water Treatment Flow Diagram

Surface water treatment uses settling and

filtration (Clarification) to do most of the work of
treating the water.
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Flocculation: Gets Settling Started

Letting gravity do the job. Basic drinking
water treatment uses two processes:
Settling (promoted by flocculation)
Sedimentation occurs in Clarification Phase

Filtration (sand filtration)

Uses slow or fast sand filters

Traditional Drinking Water Treatment

removes particles - - not chemicals.
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Surface Water Treatment: Sedimentation

The first rule of public health protection
for drinking water is to use the highest
quality water from the best source.
Sedimentation & filtration are effective in
this situation.
Settling speed depends on size &
density of particles.
More concentrated materials settle faster
due to interactions than dilute suspensions.
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Detention Time
It is not usually possible to hold drinking water
long enough for all suspended material to
settle out.
Detention Time: amount of time water remains
in settling tank.

TD = V / Q
TD = detention time (in hours)
V = volume of water in tank
Q = average flow rate (Vol. per unit Time)
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Example 6.1
Sedimentation tank has volume of 15,000
m3. If average flow rate is 120 ML/d, what
is the detention time? TD = V / Q
Convert volume to ML.
V = 15,000m3 x 1000 L/m3 = 15,000,000 L
V = 15 ML
TD = 15 ML / 120 ML/d = 0.125 day
= 0.125 d x 24 h/d = 3 hours
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Detention Time contd

3 hours: usual detention time required by
health departments.
Overflow Rate: defines the rate at which
water will spill out of the settling tank.

Vo = Q / A
Vo = overflow rate (m3/m2/d); (gpd/ft2)
Q = av. flow rate (m3/d) (gallons/day)
A = tank surface area (top view) (m 2) (ft2)
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Overflow Rate
Typical Overflow Rate:
33 m3/m2/d; m/d
800 gpd/ft2
authorized by health depts

Clarified Water: collected

in skimmer channels.
Shallow, wide tanks better
than narrow, deep tank:
large surface area is
important

Sediment collects at
bottom of tank as
sludge.

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Clarifier Settling Tanks

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Sedimentation Tanks

Fig. 6.6:
Circular Tank

Fig. 6.5:
Rectangular
Tank
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Settling Tanks

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Coagulation & Flocculation Can Come

Before Sedimentation Tanks
For very small particles (colloids) chemicals
called coagulants are rapidly mixed into
water to accelerate settling.
Colloids are charged, keeping them from
clumping together & settling out.
Coagulants remove the charge on particles,
allowing clumping & settling.
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Flocculation before Sedimentation

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Contd
Flocculation: after the flash-mix of coagulant
with the water, the gentle stirring leads to the
growth of flocs. which settle to the bottom.
Coagulation: the combined rapid mix/slow
mix/sedimentation process.
Alum: the common coagulant, aluminum sulfate.
Polymers: additional synthetic coagulants
(polyelectrolytes).
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Jar Test to Determine Coagulant Amount

Jar Test: Methodology
Six beakers filled with raw water
Different amounts of coagulants added and stirred
slowly
Stirring stopped and settling allowed
Beaker using least coagulant to produce clean
water is the used to compute dose for entire water
treatment plant.

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Mixing the Coagulants

Fig.
6.11

Paddle-type mixer is common.

Detention time during mixing is usually about 1 hour.

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Flocculation/Coagulation

Flash Mixer

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Suspended Solids Contact Clarifier

Small water treatment plants combine chemical addition,

flocculation, and sedimentation in a single tank as seen above, pg.
162.

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Suspended Solids Contact Clarifier

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Suspended Solids Contact Clarifier

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Coagulation and Flocs

Flocs
Flocs development process.
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Ballasted Coagulation
New practice is adding sand to coagulant.
Makes flocs heavier faster to speed up settling.
Hydrocyclone: machine that separates sand
from sludge to be reused.
About 25 plants in US using this technology.
Good where space is issue.

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Filtration

~ 5% of particles remain suspended.

They can interfere with disinfection.
To meet MCL (0.3 NTU), water must be filtered.
Filtration: passing water through filter bed of porous
material, e.g., sand.
Particles are trapped in pore spaces of filter media.
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Slow & Rapid Sand Filters

Slow Filtration: water trickles down through
sand bed due to gravity.
Rapid Filtration: water trickles through sand
bed but sand particles are larger than Slow
Filtration and has frequent Backwash step.
Backwash: used in rapid systems, to
reverse water movement & suspend trapped
particles & remove.
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SLOW SAND FILTER

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Filtration

C. Backwash

A. Slow
Filtration

B. Filtration

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Filter Bed Details: 2 Designs

Mixed Media bed:
Coal, sand and garnet (very fine)
Gravel Bed at base of media bed

Dual Media bed composition: most

desirable is for larger particles on top of
bed and smaller particles deeper into
the bed.
Anthracite coal + sand; most popular
2 mm to 0.2 mm at bottom
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Filtering Process
Water
filters
downward
through
filter media
& leaves
the tank.
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Backwash Process for Filters

Backwash:
Water forced
back into filter
bed and
particulate
waste
overflows & is
removed.

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Other Filter Types

Pressure Filters: used more in industrial
applications; have chance of allowing
particles to get past filter due to pressure.
Diatomaceous Earth Filters: use small
diatom shells as filter media. Better for
swimming pool & industry. Media
supported on metal screen or fabric.

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Diatomaceous Earth

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Granular Carbon Filters: GAC

Used to remove VOCs & SOCs,

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Air Stripping Towers

Filter Media

Used for VOCs, SOCs, gasoline and other volatile chemicals.

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Reverse Osmosis System

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Reverse Osmosis Cartridge

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UV (Ultraviolet) and Ozone Treatment

UV and Ozone Treatment

Rev. 10-2014

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