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Principlesof
Electronic
Materialsand
Devices
SecondEdition

S.O.Kasap
2002McGrawHill

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Ey

V e l o c i ty = c

D ire c tio n
o f P r o p a g a t i o n

Bz

Fig. 3.1: The classical view of light as an electromagnetic wave.

An electromagnetic wave is a travelling wave which has time
varying electric and magnetic fields which are perpendicular to
each other and to the direction of propagation.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

C o n s tr u c tiv e in te r f e r e n c e
P

D e s tr u c tiv e in te r f e r e n c e
S

P h o to g r a p h ic f ilm s h o w in g
Y o u n g 's f r i n g e s

Fig.3.2:SchematicillustrationofYoung'sdoubleslitexperiment.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

X ra y s

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

L ig h t
CA TH O D E

A N O D E

E le c tr o n s

I
A

E v ac u ated q u ar tz tu b e
V

Fig. 3.4: The Photoelectric Effect.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

S a tu ra tio n

I2
I1

V 0

(a) P hotoelectric current vs. voltage w hen the cathode is

illum inated w ith light of identical w avelength but differen t
intensities (I ). T he saturation current is proportional to the light
in ten sity

V 02

V 03

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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KE

C u io n s
" E le c tr o n g a s " ( " f r e e "
e le c tr o n s w a n d e r in g
a r o u n d i n th e m e ta l)

PE

F r e e E le c tr o n
KE

L ig h tw a v e

D is ta n c e ,x
SU RFA CE

M ETAL

SU RFA CE

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

Fig.3.8:Intuitivevisualizationoflightconsistingofastreamof
photons(nottobetakentooliterally)[FromR.Serway,C.J.
MosesandC.A.Moyer,ModernPhysics,SaundersCollege
Publishing,1989,p.56,Fig.2.16(b)]
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

Fig.3.9:Scatteringofanxrayphotonbya"free"electronina
conductor.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

X ra y
S o u r c e o f

s p e c tr o m e te r

m o n o c h r o m a ti c
X ra y s

C o ll im a to r

'
0

X r a y b e a m

U n sc a tte re d
x ra y s

( a) A sc h em at i c d i ag r am o f t h e C o m p t o n
ex p er i m en t .
I n t en si t y

I n t en si t y

o f X - r ay s

= 0

I n ten si ty

o f X - r ay s

= 90

P r i m ar y b eam

'

o f x - r ay s

= 135

( b ) R esu l t s f r o m t h e C o m p t o n ex p er i m en t

Fig. 3.10. The Compton experiment and its results.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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'

E s c a p in g b la c k b o d y
ra d ia tio n

H o t b o d y

S m a llh o le a c ts a s a b la c k b o d y

3 0 0 0 K

C l a s s i c a l t h e o r y

P l a n c k 's r a d i a t i o n l a w

2 5 0 0 K

( m )
0

Fig.3.11.Schematicillustrationofblackbodyradiationandits
characteristics.Spectralirradiancevswavelengthattwo
temperatures(3000Kisaboutthetemperatureoftheincandescent
tungstenfilamentinalightbulb).

FromPrinciple sofEle ctronicMate rialsandDe vice s,S e condEdition,S.O.Ka sa p(McGra wHill,2002)

http://Materials.Usask.Ca

F lu o r e s c e n ts c r e e n
50kV
T w o s lits

F ila m e n t

E le c tro n s

V acuum

E le c tro n d iff ra c tio n f rin g e s o n

th e s c re e n

Fig3.12:Young'sdoubleslitexperimentwithelectronsinvolvesan
electrongunandtwoslitsinacathoderaytune(CRT)(hencein
vacuum).Electronsfromthefilamentareacceleratedbya50kV
anodevoltagetoproduceabeamwhichismadetopassthroughthe
slits.Theelectronsthenproduceavisiblepatternwhentheystrikea
fluoresecentscreen(e.g.aTVscreen)andtheresultingvisualpattern
isphotographed(patternfromC.Jnsson,D.Brandt,S.Hirschi,
Am.J.Physics,42,Fig.8,p.9,1974.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

Screen
DiffractionPattern

(a)Thomsondiffractedelectronsbyusingathingold
foilandproducedadiffractionpatternonthescreen
ofhisapparatusin(b).Thefoilwaspolycrystalline
sothatthediffractionpatternwascircularrings.

GoldFoil
CathodeRays:
Electrons

PhotographicPlate
(retractable)

Pump

D
E

Capillarytube
(0.23mmdia.)
C

25cm
Foil

Flurescentviewingscreen

A
Cathode
Gas

(b):Thomson'selectrondiffraction
apparatus.Abeamofelectronsis
generatedintubeA,passedthrough
collimatingtubeB,andmadeto
impingeonathingoldfoilC.The
transmittedelectronsimpingeonthe
fluorescentscreenE,oraphotographic
plateDwhichcouldbeloweredinto
thepath.Theentireapparatuswas
evacuatedduringtheexperiment(after
G.P.Thompon,Proceedingsofthe
RoyalSociety,A117600(1928)).

(c)Electrondiffraction
patternobtainedbyG.
P.Thomsonusinga
goldfoiltarget.

(d)Compositephotographshowing
diffractionpatternsproducedwith
analuminumfoilbyxraysand
electronsofsimilarwavelength.
Left:Xraysof

(e) Diffraction pattern produced by 40 keV electrons passing through zinc oxide powder. The
distributionofthepatternwasproducedbyasmallmagnetwhichwasplacedbetweenthesample
andthephotographicplate.AnXraydiffractionpatternwouldnotbeaffectedbyamagneticfield.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

V (x)

E l ectr o n

V =
0

E n e r g y le v e l s in t h e w e ll

E4

V = 0

V =
x

P r o b ab i l i t y d en si t y | ( x ) |

n = 4

E3

n = 3

E2
E1
0

n = 2
n = 1

x = a

x = 0

a 0

Fig. 3.15: Electron in a one-dimensional infinite PE well.

The energy of the electron is quantized. Possible
wavefunctions and the probability distributions for the
electron are shown.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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S ta r th e r e f r o m r e s t

C
A
B

(a)
V (x )
E < V

V
o

III

II
x = 0

x = a

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

V (x)

M e ta l

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

nA

Tunneling
currentgray
scalevalue

y()

x()

Fig.3.18:AnSTMimageofgraphitesurface.Whitespotsrepresents
thecarbonatoms.Wecanclearlyseethehexagonalsymmetryof
atomicarrangementsonthesurface.Bothyandxaxesarein
angstroms(1=1010m)(curtesyofDr.CarolRabke,Burleigh
InstrumentsInc.,Fishers,NewYork.)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

z
V =

V = 0
V

y
0

a
x

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca


, , )
e

. .

+Ze

V (r )
r

V (r ) =

Ze

4 o r

+Ze

Fig. 3.20: The electron in the hydrogenic atom is attracted by a central

force that is always directed towards the positive nucleus. We
therefore use spherical coordinates centered at the nucleus to describe
the position of the electron. The PE of the electron depends on r only.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

n = 1

n = 2

n = 1

..

n = 2

2s

2s
0

1s

0.2

1s

2p

0.4

r ( n m )

0.2

0.4

0.6

r (n m )

0.8

2p
0.2

0.4

0.2

r ( n m )

0.4

0.6

r (n m )

(b)

(a)

Fig.3.21:(a)Radialwavefunctionsoftheelectroninahydrogenic
atomforvariousnand l values. (b) r 2 |R n, l |2 gives the radial probability
density. Vertical axis scales are linear in arbitrary units.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

0.8

y
y

x
Y fo ra 1 s o rb ita l

Y f o r a 2 p o r b ita l
z

Y f o r a 2 p o r b i t a l ( m = 0 )
z

y
x

Y f o r a 2 p o r b i t a l

|Y | f o r a 2 p o r b i t a l

|Y | f o r a 1 s o r b i t a l

| Y | f o r a 2 p o r b i t a l
y

|Y | f o r a 2 p o r b i t a l
z

( m = 0 )

(a)

(b)

Fig.3.22:(a)ThepolarplotsofYn,l(,) for 1s and 2p states. (b) The

angular dependence of the probability distribution which is proportional to
|Yn,l (,)|2.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

E l e c t r o n e n e r g y ,E .
n

E = K E
0

..

0 .5 4

0 .8 5

1 .5 1

3 .4 0

n =

10

1 3 .6 e V

15

1 G r o u n d s ta te

P h o to n

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

A to m

P h o to n

n = 1

A to m

n = 1
n = 2

(a )B e fo re c o llis io n

(b )J u s ta fte rc o llis io n

(c )P h o to n e m is s io n

Fig.3.25:AnAtomcanbecomeexcitedbyacollisionwithanother
atom.Whenitreturnstoitsgroundenergystate,itemitsaphoton.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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B ex t er n al
B ex t er n al

B ex t er n al

ml
2

y
c o s =
x

O r b i t i n g el ec t r o n

l = 2

L = h 2(2+ 1)

ml
l (l +1)

(b)
(c)
(a)
Fig. 3.26 (a) The electron has an orbital angular momentum which has a
quantized component, Lz, along an external magnetic field, Bexternal .
(b) The orbital angular momentum vector L rotates about the z-axis. Its
component Lz is quantized and therefore the orientation of L, the angle
, is also quantized. L traces out a cone. (c) According to quantum
mechanics, only certain orientations () for L are allowed as determined
by l and ml .
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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E n e rg y
0

l =0

l =1

l =2

l =3

5s

5p

5d

5f

4s

4p

4d

4f

3s

3p

3d

2s

2p

5
4

13.6eV

1s

P ho to n

Fig. 3.27: An illustration of the

allowed photon emission
processes. Photon emission
involves

S p in U p

S z ( a l o n g B )
z

+ h/2

m s = + /2
3
2

h
S

0
3
2

h/2

S
h
m s = 1 / 2

S p i n D o w n

Fig. 3.28: Spin angular momentum exhibits space quantization. Its

magnitude along
z is quantized so that the angle
S to the
ofz-axis is
also quantized.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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S
S p in d ire c tio n

=
N

E q u iv a le n tc u rre n t

M a g n e tic m o m e n t

Fig.3.29:(a)Theorbittingelectronisequivalenttoacurrentloop
whichbehaveslikeabarofmagnet.
(b)Thespinningelectronicanbeimaginedtobeequivalenttoa
currentloopasshown.Thiscurrentloopbehaveslikeabarof
magnetjustasinorbitalcase.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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j = l +

j = l

S
1
ms = + /

J
2

J
e

S
( a) P ar al l el

1
ms = /

( b ) A n t i p ar al l el

Fig. 3.30: Orbital angular momentum vector L and spin angular momentum
vector S can add either in parallel as in (a) or antiparallel as in (b). The total
angular momentum vector J (= L + S) has a magnitude J = [j(j+1)] where
in (a) j = l +1/2 and in (b) j = l 1/2.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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J =m h
z

S
J

(a)

(b)

Fig. 3.31 (a) The angular momentum vectors L and S precess

around their resultant total angular momentum vector J.
(b) The total angular momentum vector is space quantized. Vector J
precesses about the z-axis along which its component must be mj h.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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e
E le c tr o n 1

r
N u c le u s

+ Z e

12

e
E le c tro n 2

Fig.3.32:Aheliumlikeatom.Thenucleushasachargeof+Ze,
whereforHeZ=2.Ifoneelectronisremoved,wehavetheHe+ion
whichisequivalenttothehydrogenicatomwithZ=2.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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E n e rg y
O
5g

5f

6p
5d

4f

6s
5p

4d

5s

M
4p
3d

4s

3p
3s

Fig.3.33:Energyofvarious
oneelectronstates.The
energydependsonbothn
andl

2p
2s

K
1s

n
2

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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m = +1 /
s

+2e

n = 1
m =0

l =0

m s = 1 / 2

Fig. 3.34: Paired spins in an orbital.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

1
L

1 = m

(n = 2 )

He

Be

Li

(n = 1 )

(n=2)

K
(n=1)

Fig. 3.35: Electronic configurations for the first five elements. Each
box represents an orbital
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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p
L
s

Ne

p
L
s

Fig.3.36:ElectronicconfigurationsforC,N,O,FandNeatoms.
NoticethatHund'sruleforceselectronstoaligntheirspinsinC,N
andO.TheNeatomhasalltheKandLorbitalsfull.
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
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3 2

( a)
E

(b)
E

(c)

(d)

Fig. 3.38: The principle of the LASER. (a) Atoms in the ground state are
pumped up to the energy level E3 by incoming photons of energy h13 =
E3E1. (b) Atoms at E3 rapidly decay to the metastable state at energy
level E2 by emitting photons or emitting lettice vibrations. h32 = E3E2.
(c) As the states at E2 are metastable, they quickly become populated and
there is a population inversion between E2 and E1. (d) A random photon
of energy h21 = E2E1 can initiate stimulated emission. Photons from this
stimulated emission can themselves further stimulate emissions leading to
an avalanche of stimulated emissions and coherent photons being emtitted.

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

F la tm ir r o r ( R e f le c tiv ity = 0 .9 9 9 )

C o n c a v e m ir r o r
( R e f le c tiv ity = 0 .9 8 5 )

V e r y th in tu b e

L a s e r b e a m
H e N e g a s m ix tu r e

C u r r e n tr e g u la te d H V p o w e r s u p p ly

Fig.3.39:AschematicillustrationoftheHeNelaser
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

H e
1

N e
1

(1 s 2 s )

C o llis io n s

(2 p 5 s )

2 0 .6 1 e V

2 0 .6 6 e V

6 3 2 .8 n m
L a s in g e m is s io n

(2 p 3 p )
F a s ts p o n ta n e o u s d e c a y
~ 6 0 0 n m
5

(2 p 3 s )

C o llis io n s w ith
th e tu b e w a lls

(1 s )

(2 p )

G r o u n d s ta te s

Fig.3.40:TheprincipleofoperationoftheHeNelaser.HeNe
laserenergylevels(for632.8nmemission).

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

(c)

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

E n e r g y o f t h e E r

i o n

i n t h e g l a s s f i b e r

1 .2 7 e V

N o n r a d ia tiv e d e c a y

Pum p
9 8 0 n m

0 .8 0 e V

1 5 5 0 n m

1 5 5 0 n m

O ut
In

Fig.3.42EnergydiagramfortheEr3+ionintheglassfibermedium
andlightamplificationbystimulatedemissionfromE2toE1.Dashed
arrowsindicateradiationlesstransitions(energyemissionbylattice
vibrations)
From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca

Er
W a v e le n g th s e le c tiv e
c o u p le r

S ig n a lin

3+

d o p e d

f ib e r ( 1 0 2 0 m )

S p lic e

S p lic e

S ig n a lo u t

P u m p la s e r d io d e

From Principles of Electronic Materials and Devices, Second Edition, S.O. Kasap ( McGraw-Hill, 2002)
http://Materials.Usask.Ca