Nuclear Energy

Nuclear power is a hell of a way to boil

water.
- Albert Einstein

What is nuclear
energy?

Nuclear energy is a powerful

source of energy, generated
during a nuclear reaction, by
change in the nucleus of an
atom. The source of nuclear
energy is the mass of the
nucleus and energy generated
during a nuclear reaction is due
to conversion of mass into
energy (Einstein's Theory).

TWO WAYS TO OBTAIN NUCLEAR ENERGY:

1. Nuclear fission
2. Nuclear fusion

NUCLEAR FISSION
Nuclear fission reaction, the nucleus of
a heavy radioactive element like uranium,
plutonium or thorium splits up into smaller
nuclei, when bombarded by low energy
neutrons. A huge amount of heat is
generated in this process, which is used in
nuclear power plants to generate electricity.

NUCLEAR FUSION
Nuclear fusion reaction involves the
combination or fusion of two light elements to form
a heavier element and release uncontrollable
energy. Thus it cannot be used to generate
electricity, unlike fission reaction. Did you know that
the suns energy is generated by nuclear fusion
reaction? The heat and light that we get from Sun,
is all due to the continuous reactions going on
inside it. We can now imagine how much energy
would be released in the nuclear fusion reaction,
that it is the source of suns energy

BRIEF INTRO
Nuclear power is the use of sustained

nuclear fission to generate heat and

electricity. Nuclear power plants provide about
5.7% of the world's energy and 13% of the
world's electricity.
There were 439nuclear power reactors in
operation in the world, operating in
31countries.
Environmentalists for Nuclear Energy contend
that nuclear power is a sustainable energy
source that reduces carbon emissions.

Just as many conventional thermal power

stations generate electricity by harnessing the

thermal energy released from burning fossil
fuels, nuclear power plants convert the energy
released from the nucleus of an atom via
nuclear fission that takes place in a nuclear
reactor.
The heat is removed from the reactor core by a
cooling system that uses the heat to generate
steam, which drives a steam turbine connected
to a generator producing electricity.

LIFE CYCLE

A nuclear reactor is only part of the life-cycle for

nuclear power. The process starts with mining

(see Uranium mining). Uranium mines are
underground, open-pit, or in-situ leach mines.
The uranium ore is extracted, usually converted
into a stable and compact form such as
yellowcake, and then transported to a
processing facility. The yellowcake is converted
to uranium hexafluoride, which is then enriched
using various techniques
The fuel rods will spend about 3 operational

cycles (typically 6 years total now) inside the

reactor, generally until about 3% of their
uranium has been fission,

then they will be moved

to a spent fuel pool

where the short lived
isotopes generated by
fission can decay away.
After about 5 years in a
spent fuel pool the spent
fuel is radioactively and
thermally cool enough to
handle, and it can be
moved to dry storage
casks or reprocessed.

URANIUM

Uranium is a fairly common element in the

Earth's crust. Uranium is approximately as

common as tin or germanium in Earth's crust,
and is about 40times more common than
silver.
Uranium is a constituent of most rocks, dirt,
and of the oceans. The fact that uranium is so
spread out is a problem because mining
uranium is only economically feasible where
there is a large concentration.
The cost of nuclear power lies for the most
part in the construction of the power station.

Therefore the fuel's contribution to the

overall cost of the electricity produced is
relatively small, so even a large fuel price
escalation will have relatively little effect
on final price.

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A
NUCLEAR REACTOR

ADVANTAGES
Almost 0 emissions (very low greenhouse gas
emissions).
They can be sited almost anywhere unlike oil which is
mostly imported.
The plants almost never experience problems if not
from human error, which almost never happens
anyway because the plant only needs like 10 people
to operate it.
A small amount of matter creates a large amount of
energy.
A lot of energy is generated from a single power plant.
Current nuclear waste in the US is over 90% Uranium.
If reprocessing were made legal again in the US we
would have enough nuclear material to last hundreds
of years.

Modern reactors have two to ten times more

efficiency than the old generation reactors

currently in use around the US. New reactor
types have been designed to make it
physically impossible to melt down.
As the core gets hotter the reaction gets
slower, hence a run-away reaction leading to
a melt-down is not possible.

DISADVANTAGES

Nuclear plants are more expensive

to build and maintain.

Waste products are dangerous and
need to be carefully stored for long
periods of time. The spent fuel is
highly radioactive and has to be
carefully stored for many years or
decades after use. This adds to the
costs.
There is presently no adequate
safe long-term storage for
radioactive and chemical waste
produced from early reactors some
of which will need to be safely

Nuclear power plants can be dangerous to its

surroundings and employees. It would cost a lot to clean

in case of spillages.
There exist safety concerns if the plant is not operated
correctly or conditions arise that were unforeseen when
the plant was developed, as happened at the
Fukushima plant in Japan.
nuclear plants can render hundreds of square miles of
land uninhabitable and unsuitable for any use for years,
decades or longer, and kill off entire river systems .
A lot of waste from early reactors was stored in
containers meant for only a few decades, but is well
past expiration and, resulting, leaks are furthering
contamination.
Early nuclear research and experimentation has created
massive contamination problems that are still
uncontained.

The 100 Ton Test

On May 7, 1945, 108

tons of TNT stacked

and threaded with
radioactive material
was detonated in the
White Sands desert in
New Mexico.
This explosion was

meant to calibrate
the instruments that
would measure the
actual nuclear bombs
to be tested later.

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Atomic Structure
Nuclear technology takes advantage of the

power locked in structure of atoms, the basic

particle of matter.
The nucleus of an atom

contains all of its

positively-charged protons
and non-charged neutrons.
Negatively-charged electrons
orbit the nucleus.
Atoms always contain equal numbers of

protons and electrons, , making them

electrically neutral.
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Atoms can have different

numbers of neutrons in
their nuclei.
Nuclei from the same

element with different

numbers of neutrons are
called isotopes.
Most isotopes are stable,

but some can

spontaneously break apart,
emitting energy and
particles.
This is radiation.

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Nuclear weapons harness a specific type of

decay called nuclear fission.

This is the splitting of the nucleus into two

smaller fragments.
The fuel used by the first

nuclear weapons was

Uranium-235, a naturally
occurring isotope.
Uranium-235 has an

extremely large nucleus

that can be split when it
is hit with a high-speed
neutron.

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In a nuclear bomb, a large amount of uranium-

235 is clustered together, so that when fission is

initiated in one of the atoms, it splits and
released more neutrons, which then cause
fission in other atoms.
This creates a fission chain

reaction.
Each time a nucleus splits,

a large amount of energy is

released.
Multiplied across the entire

chain reaction

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Nuclear Power Plants

Nuclear Power Plants

Elements in the Nuclear Reactor

Fuel Rods
Contain the fissionable material
Also contain a built-in neutron source as initiator
Usually Be-9 is used; alpha particles cause neutron release

Eventually are spent and must be removed

Handling and long-term storage is the biggest safety/environmental problem

with nuclear fission. Hasnt been solved to everyones satisfaction.

Material: uranium oxide (usually enriched with U-235)

Control Rods
Absorb all the neutrons
Cadmium, silver, indium rods all used

Used to control power output

Or for emergency shutdown

Moderator (Primary Coolant)

Usually an aqueous solution of boric acid

Secondary Coolant
Powers the steam generator (ie, the heat engine)

The Moderator
What does it do?
Absorbs energy from the fast neutrons
The moderator heats up
The neutrons become thermal neutrons

Two roles
Controls neutron energy
Transfer energy to secondary coolant

Temperature feedback controls generation ratio

Energy of neutrons affects generation ratio
Less energy = more effective at causing fission reactions

Negative feedback mechanism: as temperature increases

Neutron energy increases
Generation ratio decreases

Ultimately generation ratio magically settles to exactly 1

Nuclear Fuel

Nuclear Fuel Cycle

Thermal Reactor Designs

Light-Water Reactors (LWRs)
Used in the US
Two variants:
Boiling-water reactors (bwrs) where steam circulates
Steam produced by the nuclear reactor turns the turbine
Uses one fewer heat exchangers

Pressurized-water reactors (pwrs) where pressurized superheated

water cirulates
Probably the most common type world-wide
3-mile island is a PWR

Heavy-Water Reactors (HWRs)

Uses deuterated water (D 2O) heavy water as the

moderator
Used in Canada
Fuel enrichment is not necessary

Fast Reactors
Fast vs Thermal Reactors
HWR and LWR designs are all thermal reactors
Thermal neutrons are used to sustain fission

Fast reactors
Do not need moderators
Uranium fuel must be highly-enriched perhaps even weapons

grade
Because of lower efficiency
Also because U-238 readily absorbs fast neutrons

Plutonium can also be used

Fast Breeder Reactors (FBRs)

Produces more fissionable fuel than it consumes!
Once thought to be the future of nuclear power. BUT
More plentiful supplies of uranium ore were found
FBRs generally pose a greater security threat

Breeder Reactors
Un
238
92

239
92

239
92

239
U 93
Np 01

239
93

239
Np 94
Pu 01

Idea
Fast neutron capture by U-238 produces fissionable

Pu-239
Pu-239 undergoes neutron-activated nuclear fission
to continue producing energy
Breeder reactors are designed to maximize amount
of Pu-239 production
Amplifies reserves (but not inexhaustible)
Up to 60% of the energy content of the uranium can be

used, instead of 1-2%

Again, the Nuclear Fuel Cycle

HLW Disposal Options

NUCLEAR FUEL
Nuclear fuel is any material that can

be consumed to derive nuclear energy.

The most common type of nuclear fuel
is fissile elements that can be made to
undergo nuclear fi ssion chain reactions
in a nuclear reactor
The most common nuclear fuels are

235U and 239Pu. Not all nuclear fuels

are used in fission chain reactions

NUCLEAR FISSION
When a neutron strikes an atom of

uranium, the uranium splits ingto two

lighter atoms and releases heat
simultaneously.
Fission of heavy elements is an exothermic

reaction which can release large amounts of

energy both as electromagnetic radiation
and as kinetic energy of the fragments

NUCLEAR CHAIN REACTIONS

A chain reaction refers to a process in which

neutrons released in fission produce an additional

fission in at least one further nucleus. This nucleus in
turn produces neutrons, and the process repeats. If the
process is controlled it is used for nuclear power or
if uncontrolled it is used for nuclear weapons

U235 + n fission + 2 or 3 n + 200 MeV

If each neutron releases two more

neutrons, then the number of fissions

doubles each generation. In that case, in 10
generations there are 1,024 fissions and in
80 generations about 6 x 10 23 (a mole)
fissions.

Nuclear Power Plant

Boiling Water
Reactor (BWR)
The Pressurized Water
Reactor (PWR)

NUCLEAR REACTOR
A nuclear reactor is a device in which

nuclear chain reactions are initiated,

controlled, and sustained at a steady rate,
as opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which the
chain reaction occurs in a fraction of a
second and is uncontrolled causing an
explotion.

CONTROL RODS
Control rods made of a material that

absorbs neutrtons are inserted into the

bundle using a mechanism that can rise or
lower the control rods.
. The control rods essentially contain

neutron absorbers like, boron, cadmium or

indium.

STEAM GENERATORS
Steam generators are heat exchangers

used to convert water into steam from heat

produced in a nuclear reactor core.

Either ordinary water or heavy water is

used as the coolant .

STEAM TURBINE
A steam turbine is a mechanical device

that extracts thermal energy from

pressurized steam, and converts it into
useful mechanical

Various high-performance alloys and

superalloys have been used for steam

generator tubing.

COOLANT PUMP
The coolant pump pressurizes the coolant

to pressures of the orderof 155bar.

The pressue of the coolant loop is

maintained almost constant with the help of

the pump and a pressurizer unit .

FEED PUMP
Steam coming out of the turbine,

flows through the condenser for

condensation and recirculated for the
next cycle of operation.
The feed pump circulates the

condensed water in the working fluid

loop .

CONDENSER
Condenser is a device or unit which is

used to condense vapor into liquid.

The objective of the condenser are to

reduce the turbine exhaust pressure to

increase the effi ciency and to recover high
quality feed water in the form of condensate
& feed back it to the steam generator
without any further treatment.

COOLING TOWER
Cooling towers are heat removal devices

used to transfer process waste heat to the

atmosphere.
Water circulating through the condenser is

taken to the cooling tower for cooling and

reuse

ADVANTAGES
Nuclear power generation does emit relatively

low amounts of carbon dioxide (CO2). The

emissions of green house gases and therefore
the contribution of nuclear power plants to
global warming is therefore relatively little.
This technology is readily available, it does not

have to be developed fi rst.

It is possible to generate a high amount of

electrical energy in one single plant

DISADVANTAGES
The problem of radioactive waste is still an

unsolved one.
High risks: It is technically impossible to build a

plant with 100% security.

The energy source for nuclear energy is

Uranium. Uranium is a scarce resource, its

supply is estimated to last only for the next 30
to 60 years depending on the actual demand.

DISADVANTAGES
Nuclear power plants as well as nuclear

waste could be preferred targets for terrorist

attacks..

During the operation of nuclear power

plants, radioactive waste is produced, which

in turn can be used for the production of
nuclear weapons .

Nuclear Reactors
The process of

converting nuclear
energy into
electricity is
similar to that of
using fossil fuels.
Water is boiled,

the steam is
passed through a
turbine, which
spins a generator.

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As with nuclear bombs, the primary fuel is

uranium-235.
Uranium ore is enriched and formed into fuel

pellets.
The fuel pellets are stacked into long, cylindrical
fuel rods.
Control rods, made of a neutron-absorbing
material, are placed amongst the fuel rods.
Can be removed and inserted to adjust the rate of the

chain reaction.
Withdraw
control
rods,
reaction
increases

Insert
control
rods,
reaction
decreases
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One big advantage to nuclear power is that,

under normal conditions, it does not release any

air pollution, only steam.

Cooling
Tower in
Byron, Illinois

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Kinds of Reactors Contd

Both reactor vessel and

steam generator are

housed in a special
containment building
preventing radiation
from escaping, and
providing extra security
in case of accidents.
Under normal

operating conditions, a
reactor releases very
little radioactivity.
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Summary: How Nuclear Energy Works

Nuclear Accidents
In 1979, a movie called The

China Syndrome was

released.
Fictional story about a

California nuclear plant that

experienced a near-meltdown
of its nuclear core.
The title of the movie is an
exaggeration of what happens
during a meltdown the
nuclear core becomes so hot
that it melts, even melting
through the floor of the reactor

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Ten days following the movies release, the

Three Mile Island partial meltdown occurred.

A relief water valve stuck open, allowing water to

escape from the core.

A meltdown, when the fuel and control rods
physically begin to melt due to the heat surge
within the reactor, partially occurred.
No major leak to the
environment occurred.

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In 1986, a full meltdown occurred at the

Chernobyl nuclear plant located in Ukraine

(formerly Soviet Union).
A test was being conducted on the reactor to
see how the backup water pump generators
would respond to a full power outage.
The control rods were fully removed.
At some point, the fission chain reaction began

occurring uncontrollably.
An explosion ripped apart the containment
building, spreading radioactive fallout throughout
the area and into the atmosphere.

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There were multiple design flaws at the Chernobyl

plant:
The containment building was inadequate.
Graphite was used as a

moderator instead of
water. When the
meltdown occurred, it
ignited, releasing more
fallout.
A water storage pool
was located under the
reactor. If the core had
melted down into this
pool, an even greater
explosion would have occurred.
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The burning core was eventually extinguished.

The nearby employees town, Pripyat, was

permanently evacuated.
A 30km radius around the plant, called the
exclusion zone, has been designated as
uninhabitable to people.

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Fukushima
The most recent meltdown occurred following a

massive earthquake and tidal wave off the coast

of Japan.
The generators powering the water pumps of
some of the Fukushima Daiichi reactors were
flooded.
Without cooling water, the core overheated and

experienced a meltdown.

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Contaminated water from the plant leaked into

the Pacific.
Top predators, like bluefin tuna, caught in the
Pacific have positively tested for small amounts
of radioactive fallout.
A single serving of tuna has less than half of the

exposure from an arm x-ray.

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Radioactive Waste Management

About 100,000 tons of low-

level waste (clothing) and

about 15,000 tons of highlevel waste (spent-fuel) waste
is stored in the U.S. from
reactor usage.
Spent fuel rods are temporarily
placed in deep water pools
while they cool down and the
fission reaction slows.
Waste is then moved to large

casks of metal and concrete

near the reactor.
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The U.S. Department of Energy

announced plans to build a

high-level waste repository near
Yucca Mountain, Nevada in
1987.
The facility met three important
criteria for long-term waste
storage:
Low moisture.
Geologically stable.
Far away from major population

centers.
Plans to use Yucca have since

been halted, due to objections

from Nevada residents.
No long-term storage plan has

been accepted by the U.S.

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Some alternative methods of nuclear

waste disposal have been researched.

Transmutation uses the waste as fuel in a

different type of reactor, which converts it

to a less-dangerous waste.
Geologic disposal involves
depositing the waste
deep below the Earths
crust in stable rock
formations.

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Nuclear energy makes up only a

fraction of our total energy generation.

Its use may increase in the future, as

fossil fuels become more scarce or are

considered too environmentally
damaging.

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