Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Overview
Introduction
History
Types of Reactions
Chemistry
Explosive Performance
Factors that Influence Performance
Temas
Introduccin
Historia
Tipos de Reaccin
Qumica
Comportamiento del Explosivo
Factores que Influyen en el Comportamiento
Definitions
Explosion
A violent expansion of gas.
Explosive
Chemical compound or mixture of chemicals with
the ability to react independently of external
reactants once initiated.
Definiciones
Explosin
Una violenta expansin de gases.
Explosivo
Componentes qumicos o una mezcla de
qumicos con la habilidad de reaccionar
independientemente de reactantes externos una
vez iniciados.
Energetic Materials
Propellants
Blasting
Explosives
ANFO
Heavy ANFO
Water gels
Emulsions
High Explosives
M9
Ballistite
Black powder
Pyrotechnics
Primary
Secondary
Lead Azide
Lead Styphnate
Mercury Fulminate
TNT
RDX
PETN
Thermite
Delay comps
Igniter comps
Materiales Energticos
Propelentes
Explosivos
para
Voladuras
ANFO
ANFO pesado
Hidrogeles
Emulsiones
Altos Explosivos
M9
Balstica
Plvora Negra
Pirotcnicos
Primarios
cida de Plomo
Styphnate de Plomo
Fulminante de Mercurio
Secundarios
TNT
RDX
PETN
Thermite
Comp. de Retardo
Comp. de Ignicin
Explosive Systems
Secondary
Explosive
Primary
Explosive
Pyrotechnic
Blasting Explosive
Sistema Explosivo
Carga
Secundaria
Carga
Primaria
Pirotcnico
Explosivo
Explosive Systems
Complete round of gun ammunition
2
Primary explosive
Pyrotechnic
Propellant
Sistema Explosivo
Carga completa de municin
Explosivo primario
Pirotcnico
Propelente
Ever-Flat
< 1 joule
Safely
Megajoules +
Ever-Flat
< 1 joule
Seguro
Megajoules +
History
Historia
Black Powder
Source: http://china.candidemedia.com/html/dispatches/fourteen/candide.html
Plvora Negra
Fuente: http://china.candidemedia.com/html/dispatches/fourteen/candide.html
Explosives
1242
Explosivos
1242
1846
1866
Explosives
1867
Johan Norrbin and Johan V. Ohlsson patented use of
ammonium nitrate with various sensitisers and nitroglycerin
1875
Alfred Nobel discovered blasting gelatin by dissolving
nitrocellulose in nitroglycerin - gelatin nitroglycerin.
Introduced
gelatin dynamite.
1950s Ammonium Nitrate, combined with various combustibles,
began to replace large quantities of nitroglycerin dynamite.
1957
1964
Explosivos
1867
1875
1964
Explosives
1745
1830
1831
William Bickford invented the safety fuse and built a
factory in Cornwall, England.
1830 1832 Dr Robert Hare developed the bridge wire method of
electric blasting.
1864 1867 Alfred Nobel developed a method of initiating nitroglycerin
by using safety fuse, black powder igniters and capsules
of mercury fulminate, the first commercial detonator.
Explosivos
1745
1830
Explosives
1870s H. Julius Smith introduced bridge wire initiated electric blasting
caps and developed a portable, generator-type blasting
machine.
1895
1899
1913
Explosivos
1870s H. Julius Smith introduce cpsulas iniciadoras de cable puente
y desarrolla una blasting machine tipo-generador portatil.
1895
1899
1913
Initiation Systems
1946
1960
1976
Sistemas de Iniciacin
1946
1960
1976
Explosives Research
In spite of the variety of modern applications of
explosives, detonation science has not yet reached
maturity for several reasons.
Theoretical calculations are intrinsically difficult as
detonation is an exquisitely nonlinear process.
Reaction zone is usually 100-1000 times smaller
than the region in which the explosion products
deposit their energy. The inert surrounding
material effects the way the explosive chemical
reactions proceed.
Investigacin en Explosivos
Explosives Research
There is little information about chemical and physical properties
of materials subjected to the extreme conditions that prevail in an
explosion.
Peak pressures can be as high as 500 000 atm.
Detonation propagates at velocities up to 10 km/s.
The chemical reactions involved in detonations are timed in
nanoseconds and take place in a layer 0.01 - 1 mm thick.
Suitable instruments have only recently become available.
Experiments are costly as explosive components are
destroyed.
Full-scale testing requires a large area of isolated land.
Investigacin en Explosivos
La siguiente es una pequea informacin acerca de las
propiedades fsicas y qumicas de los materiales sujetos a
extremas condiciones que producen una explosin.
Presiones Peak pueden ser mayores a 500 000 atm.
La Detonacin se propaga a velocidades sobre 10 km/s.
Las reacciones qumicas envueltas en la detonacin se
realizan en tiempos de nano-segundos y tienen lugar en
capas de 0.01 - 1 mm de espesor.
Instrumentacin adecuada solo ha estado disponible
recientemente.
La experimentacin es costosa, debido a que lo componentes
explosivos son destruidos.
Pruebas a escala real requieren de gran rea de terrenos
aislados.
Types of Reactions
Tipos de Reaccin
Detonation
Shock Wave
Shock
Front
C-J Plane
Stable
Reaction
Expanding Gases
Products,
Mainly Gas
Undisturbed
Explosive
Direction of Detonation
Primary Reaction
Zone
Detonacin
Onda de Choque
Frente de
Choque
Productos
estables
de la reaccin,
Principalmente
Gas
Explosivo
Inalterado
Plano C-J
Gases en
Expansin
Direccin de Detonacin
Zona de Reaccin
Primaria
Shockwave
Onda de Choque
Burning
The propagation of combustion by a surface process.
where
Combustion
An exothermic reaction producing flame, sparks or
smoke. The oxidiser may be part of the material
(explosive) or obtained from the atmosphere (fire).
Quemado
La propagacin de la combustin por medio de un
proceso superficial.
donde
Combustin
Una reaccin exotrmica que produce flama,
chispa o humo. El oxidante puede ser parte del material
(explosivo) u obtenido desde la atmsfera (fuego).
Deflagration
A rapid burning in which convection often plays an
important role.
Used in mining to describe the burning of an
explosive which has failed to detonate.
Deflagracin
Un rpido quemado en el cual la conveccin a
menudo juega un importante rol.
Usada en minera para describir el quemado de un
explosivo que ha fallado en su detonacin.
Burning is slow compared with detonation Detonation is much faster than burning
(0.001 500 m/s)
(1800 9000 m/s)
Burning is a surface reaction. Due to low
linear rate and because of conductive
and reactive factors, often tendency for
the flame to spread along unburnt
surfaces faster than it passes into the
bulk of the explosive.
r = P
r = P
The burning rate is not dependent on the VOD depends on sample diameter
size of the sample.
(small charges) & fails below some
critical diameter.
Burning is (normally) initiated by direct
heat or flame. Burning may convert to
detonation if conditions are
favourable.
Chemistry
Qumica
rust
Oxido
Rate of Reaction
Fuel/Oxidiser Proximity
Example
Rate
Atmosphere
Slow
Compound (Mixture)
Non-ideal Explosive
eg. ANFO, emulsion
Fast
Ideal Explosive
eg, TNT, PETN
Extreme
Molecule
Rapidez de Reaccin
Proximidad
Combustible/Oxidante
Ejemplo
Rapidez
Atmsfera
mantequilla, madera,
gasolina
Lento
Componentes (Mezcla)
Explosivos no-ideales
ej. ANFO, emulsiones
Rpida
Explosivos ideales
ej, TNT, PETN
Extrema
Molcula
Energy
Rate
~30 MJ/kg
minutes (hours)
(103 secs)
4-6 MJ/kg
microseconds
(10-6 secs)
coal
Energa
Tiempo
~30 MJ/kg
minutos (horas)
(103 seg.)
4-6 MJ/kg
microsegundos
(10-6 seg.)
carbn
Balance de Oxgeno
Todo H a H2O, C a CO2 y otros combustibles completamente
oxidados (Ej. Al a Al2O3) mientras que el N se convierte a N2.
Exceso de Oxgeno produce NO y NO2 txico.
Deficiencia de Oxgeno produce CO txico.
O2NO.CH2
CH2.ONO2
C5H8O12N4 = 316
CH2.ONO2
CH2.ONO2
Q: 5940 J/g
V: 790 cm3/g
Td: 4625 K
D@ 1.56: 8300 m/s
Uses
1. Main charge in munitions, mixed with TNT or wax or both (Pentolite).
2. Explosive accessories - detonators, det. cord and boosters.
O2NO.CH2
CH2.ONO2
C5H8O12N4 = 316
CH2.ONO2
CH2.ONO2
Q: 5940 J/g
V: 790 cm3/g
Td: 4625 K
D@ 1.56: 8300 m/s
Usos
1. Carga primaria en municiones, mezcla con TNT o wax o ambos
(Pentolita).
2. Accesorios Explosivos detonadores, cordn det. y boosters.
C7H5N3O6 = 227.1
O2 N
NO2
H
NO2
Type: nitrocompound
Td: 2595 K
D@ 1.57: 6950 m/s
Uses
1. In HE munition fillings, usually mixed with other explosives, eg. RDX,
HMX, ammonium nitrate.
2. In some commercial blasting explosives: ammonal, TNT powder
explosives, some water-based slurry explosives.
C7H5N3O6 = 227.1
O2 N
NO2
H
NO2
Tipo: nitrocompound
Td: 2595 K
D@ 1.57: 6950 m/s
Usos
1. En HE rellenos de municin, usualmente mezclado con otros
explosivos, ej. RDX, HMX, nitrato de amonio.
2. En algunos explosivos comerciales: ammonal, TNT explosivos de alto
poder, algunos explosivos slurrys.
CH2.ONO2
C3H5N3O9 = 227.1
CH.ONO2
CH2.ONO2
Q: 6275 J/g
V: 740 cm3/g
4900 K
D@ 1.60: 7750 m/s
Uses
1. In gelatinous form (usually) in many commercial explosives.
2. In gelatinous form in propellants for guns and rockets.
CH2.ONO2
CH.ONO2
CH2.ONO2
C3H5N3O9 = 227.1
Manufactura: por la accin de una mezcla de
cido ntrico y sulfrico en glicerina.
Forma Fsica: Lquido aceitoso amarillo plido,
f.p. 13oC.
Q: 6275 J/g
V: 740 cm3/g
4900 K
D@ 1.60: 7750 m/s
Usos
1. En forma gelatinosa (usualmente) en muchos explosivos comerciales.
2. En forma gelatinosa en propelentes para armas y cohetes.
Composite Explosive
eg ANFO
AN Prill
Diesel fuel
Explosivos Compuestos
Ej. ANFO
AN Prill
Petrleo Diesel
Explosive Performance
Secondary Explosives
ANFO
Primary Explosives
Nitroglycol (EGDN)
Nitroglycerin
PETN
RDX
HMX
RDX/TNT 60/40 (Comp B)
Pentolite (PETN/TNT 50/50)
Tetryl (CE)
TNT
DATB
J/g
6730
6275
5940
5130
5130
4500
4475
4350
4080
3805
Lead styphnate
Mercury fulminate
Lead azide
1885
1755
1610
Explosivos Secundarios
ANFO
Explosivos Primarios
Nitroglicol (EGDN)
Nitroglicerina
PETN
RDX
HMX
RDX/TNT 60/40 (Comp B)
Pentolita (PETN/TNT 50/50)
Tetril (CE)
TNT
DATB
J/g
6730
6275
5940
5130
5130
4500
4475
4350
4080
3805
Lead styphnate
Mercury fulminate
Lead azide
1885
1755
1610
ANFO
Secondary Explosives
Primary Explosives
DATB
HMX
RDX
Tetryl (CE)
RDX/TNT 60/40 (Comp B)
PETN
TNT
Nitroglycerin
Nitroglycol (EGDN)
Lead styphnate
Mercury fulminate
Lead azide
1015
910
908
845
796
790
790
740
740
325
235
230
ANFO
Explosivos Secundarios
Explosivos Primarios
DATB
HMX
RDX
Tetryl (CE)
RDX/TNT 60/40 (Comp B)
PETN
TNT
Nitroglycerin
Nitroglicol (EGDN)
Lead styphnate
Mercury fulminate
Lead azide
1015
910
908
845
796
790
790
740
740
325
235
230
Secondary Explosives
ANFO
Primary Explosives
Nitroglycol (EGDN)
PETN
HMX
Nitroglycerin
RDX
RDX/TNT 60/40 (Comp B)
DATB
Pentolite 50/50
Tetryl (CE)
TNT
Lead styphnate
Mercury fulminate
Lead azide
170
161
160
159
159
138
132
129
123
117
21
14
13
Explosivos Secundarios
ANFO
Explosivos Primarios
Nitroglycol (EGDN)
PETN
HMX
Nitroglycerin
RDX
RDX/TNT 60/40 (Comp B)
DATB
Pentolite 50/50
Tetryl (CE)
TNT
Lead styphnate
Mercury fulminate
Lead azide
170
161
160
159
159
138
132
129
123
117
21
14
13
Shockwave Effects
Brisance
Derived from French word briser - to break.
The shattering effect of a high explosive is largely
due to the very high dynamic pressure in the
shock front of the detonation wave.
Up to 39 GPa far higher than static pressure of
explosive gases occupying the volume of the
charge at temperature of detonation.
Secondary
Explosives
HMX
RDX
PETN
RDX/TNT 60/40
DATB
Nitroglycol (EGDN)
Nitroglycerin
Tetryl (CE)
TNT
VOD
(m/s)
9110
8440
8300
7900
7520
8100
7700
7160
6950
Density
(g/cm3)
1.89
1.70
1.56
1.72
1.79
1.50
1.60
1.50
1.57
p
(GPa)
39.2
30.0
26.9
26.8
25.3
24.6
23.7
19.2
19.0
Primary
Explosives
Lead azide
Mercury fulminate
Lead styphnate
4500
4500
4900
3.8
3.3
2.6
19.2
16.7
15.7
Blasting
Emulsion
ANFO
5500*
4000*
1.20
0.80
9.1
3.2
Explosivos
Secundarios
HMX
RDX
PETN
RDX/TNT 60/40
DATB
Nitroglycol (EGDN)
Nitroglycerin
Tetryl (CE)
TNT
VOD
(m/s)
9110
8440
8300
7900
7520
8100
7700
7160
6950
Densidad
(g/cm3)
1.89
1.70
1.56
1.72
1.79
1.50
1.60
1.50
1.57
p
(GPa)
39.2
30.0
26.9
26.8
25.3
24.6
23.7
19.2
19.0
Explosivos
Primarios
Lead azide
Mercury fulminate
Lead styphnate
4500
4500
4900
3.8
3.3
2.6
19.2
16.7
15.7
Voladura
Emulsin
ANFO
5500*
4000*
1.20
0.80
9.1
3.2
Increasing Sensitivity
Sensitivity
Touch,
Heat
No 2 Det
No 6 Det
No 8 Det
Primer
Lead
Azide
NG*
Dynamite
Cap Sensitive
Emulsion
ANFO,
Bulk
Emulsion
Incremento de la Sensitividad
Sensitividad
Toque de
Calor
Det No 2
Det No 6
Det No 8
Primer
Azida de
Plomo
NG*
Dinamita
Emulsin
Sensibilizada
ANFO,
Emulsin
Vaciable
0
50
100
150
(15
0)
Po
we
rg
el
(>1
65
TN
)
T(
18
0)
Co
mp
B
Nit
ro
Le glyc
ad
e
Sty rin (
ph 13)
,
na
te Prop
Ge
(18
ell
lig
)
n
, L ant
ite
Ign
AR
ea
AN
ite
d
60
rC
Az 200
ide 1 (
(sa
om
Ge
p W mp
(20 15)
lig
le
)
R2
nit
A)
1
PE
e
6(
(
40 36)
TN AN6
)
,H
0
MX (sa
(60 mpl
eB
RD
)
) (5
X(
80
7)
)
CE
(90
)
200
0
50
100
150
(15
0)
Po
we
rg
el
(>1
65
TN
)
T(
18
0)
Co
mp
B
Nit
ro
Le glyc
ad
e
Sty rin (
ph 13)
,
na
te Prop
Ge
(18
ell
lig
)
n
, L ant
ite
Ign
AR
ea
AN
ite
d
60
rC
Az 200
ide 1 (
(sa
om
Ge
p W mp
(20 15)
lig
le
)
R2
nit
A)
1
PE
e
6(
(
40 36)
TN AN6
)
,H
0
MX (sa
(60 mpl
eB
RD
)
) (5
X(
80
7)
)
CE
(90
)
200
Physical Characteristics
Plastic Explosives
PE4, C4, Semtex, Gelignite, Powergel, Powermite, MEX
Sheet Explosives
Detasheet, Primasheet, Metabel, SX2
Cast Explosives
TNT, Pentolite, Comp B, Torpex, H6
PBX (Polymer Bonded Explosive)
PBXN-109, PBXW-115
Prilled or Powdered Explosives
ANFO, Trigran, PETN, RDX
Emulsion
Titan, Powergel
Water Gel
Tovex, Molanite
Caractersticas Fsicas
Explosivos Plsticos
PE4, C4, Semtex, Gelignite, Powergel, Powermite, MEX
Sheet Explosives
Detasheet, Primasheet, Metabel, SX2
Cast Explosives
TNT, Pentolite, Comp B, Torpex, H6
PBX (Polymer Bonded Explosive)
PBXN-109, PBXW-115
Explosivos en Prill (granulado) o en polvo
ANFO, Trigran, PETN, RDX
Emulsin
Titan, Powergel
Hidrogel
Tovex, Molanite
Density
Important property for explosive selection
Density below 1.0g/cc means explosive will float in
water
Increasing density leads to increasing VOD up to
critical density
Higher density for non-ideal explosives risks dead
pressing
Hard massive rock - High density, high VOD
explosive
Soft/highly structured rock - Low density, low VOD
explosive
Densidad
Propiedad importante para la seleccin de un
explosivo.
Densidades bajo 1.0 g/cc producen que el explosivo
flote en agua.
Incrementos en la densidad producen incremento en
la VOD hasta la densidad crtica.
Altas densidades para explosivos no-ideales
generan riesgo de dead pressing
Rocas duras masivas Alta densidad Explosivos
con alta VOD.
Rocas blandas/altamente fracturadas Baja
densidad, Explosivos con baja VOD.
Water Resistance
Resistencia al Agua
Habilidad de un explosivo para la exposicin al agua sin perder
su eficiencia o sensitividad.
Altas variaciones:
ANFO no posee
Emulsiones poseen excelente resistencia al agua
Dependencia de las condiciones de aguas
Aguas estticas o dinmicas
El pH afecta el tiempo de exposicin de emulsiones
Gases de xidos de nitrgeno anaranjados-cafs postvoladuras son indicio de dao al explosivo producto de
agua.
La resistencia al agua puede ser mejorada mediante el uso
de mangas o explosivos encartuchados.
Chemical Stability
Estabilidad Qumica
Effective Energy
The energy that an explosive is able to deliver to do
useful work
It is the energy delivered before the gasses vent
to the atmosphere
Amount of Effective Energy in any blast is
unknown - too many variables
Calculations often use a cut off of 100MPa for the
gas pressure
Energa Efectiva
La energa que un explosivo puede entregar para
realizar trabajo til
Es la energa liberada antes que los gases sean
ventilados a la atmsfera
La cantidad de energa efectiva en cualquier
voladura es desconocida son demasiadas
variables
Para efectos de clculos, a menudo se utiliza una
presin de gases de 100MPa
1200
Available energy to 200 MPa
1000
800
600
400
200
0
10
15
20
25
1200
Energa disponible a 200 MPa
1000
UCS de la roca
800
600
400
200
0
10
15
20
25
VOD Trace
20
Distance ( m )
15
Stemming Column
Trace
diminishe
s to zero
within
0.5m
10
0
-1
Time (ms)
Traza de VOD
20
Distancia ( m )
15
Columna de taco
La traza
disminuy
e a cero
en 0.5m
10
0
-1
Tiempo (ms)
Explosive Energy
Explosive energy needs to be transformed into useful
rock fragmentation and rock displacement
Energy can be measured or calculated
Calculations are done by thermodynamic codes in
computers
Measurement techniques include:
Underwater test
Ballistic mortar
Shock
Energy
Availabl
e
Energy
Heave
Energy
0%
Increasing Velocity of
Detonation
Energa de
Choque
Energa de
Gas
0%
Incremento en la velocidad de
detonacin
Rock Type
Hard massive rock needs higher VOD (higher shock
energy) explosives for optimal fragmentation
Highly fractured rockmass needs higher heave (lower
VOD) explosives for muckpile displacement
Soft rock (eg. weathered overburden) requires needs
higher heave (lower VOD) explosives for muckpile
displacement
Open cracks or voids can require bagged product,
sleeves, decking etc to prevent over loading of holes
Tipo de Roca
Rocas duras masivas requieren de explosivos con
alta VOD (alta energa de choque) para una
fragmentacin optima.
Macizos altamente fracturados requieren explosivos
que generen alta liberacin de gases (baja VOD)
para desplazar el muckpile.
Rocas blandas (Ej. Sobrecargas meteorizadas)
requieren explosivos con alta liberacin de gases
(baja VOD) para desplazar el muckpile
Fracturas abiertas o vacos requieren productos
encartuchados, mangas, decking etc. para prevenir
sobrecarga de los tiros.
Critical Diameter
The minimum diameter at which a stable detonation
can propagate.
primary explosives < 1 mm
ANFO, emulsion > 100 mm
Close to the critical diameter (Dcrit), VOD is inversely
proportional to the diameter.
After steady-state velocity is reached an increase in
charge diameter will not further increase VoD
Depends on the level of confinement
Dimetro Crtico
Es el mnimo dimetro al cual la detonacin estable
puede ser propagada.
Explosivos primarios < 1 mm
ANFO, emulsiones > 100 mm
Cerca del dimetro crtico (Dcrit), la VOD es
inversamente proporcional al dimetro.
Despus de alcanzada una velocidad de rgimen un
aumento en el dimetro de carga no produce
aumento en la VOD.
Depende del grado de confinamiento
Critical Diameter
VoD
Dcrit
Charge Diameter
Dimetro Crtico
VoD
Dcrit
Dimetro de Carga
Critical Diameter
The critical diameter (Dcrit) is important for
determining hole size/explosive type compatibility
Dcrit is determined predominantly by the size of the
reaction zone
Density also has an effect on Dcrit
Dimetro Crtico
El Dimetro Crtico (Dcrit) es importante para
determinar la compatibilidad con el tamao pozo/tipo
de explosivo.
El Dcrit es determinado predominantemente por el
tamao de la zona de reaccin
La densidad tambin tiene un efecto en el Dcrit
Dcrit(mm)
PETN
0.2
15
TNT
0.3
15 20
20 25
30 60
Emulite 150
15 20
Bulk Emulsion
40 76
Dynamite
ANFO
Zona de Reaccin
(mm)
Dcrit (mm)
PETN
0.2
15
TNT
0.3
15 20
20 25
30 60
Emulite 150
15 20
Emulsin
vaciable
40 76
Dinamita
ANFO
Dcrit vs Density
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
1.1
1.2
Density (g/cc)
1.3
1.4
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1
1.1
1.2
Densidad (g/cc)
1.3
1.4
Confinement
Increases the VOD
Can determine the type of reaction
e.g. black powder burns unconfined but deflagrates
when confined
Confinamiento
Incrementa la VOD.
Puede determinar el tipo de reaccin, Ej. la plvora
negra desconfinada se quema, mientras que
confinada puede deflagrar.
Confinement
8000
PBX-9502
(Unconfined),
density=1.89
ANFO
(Unconfined),
density=0.928
ANFO (Soft rock),
density=0.928
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
100
200
Charge Diameter, mm
300
Confinamiento