Modern physics

Electronic emission
If we provide energy to an electrode(conductor) then
the electrons in the outermost shell of the atom of that
metal gain enough energy to erect from the surface of
that metal or electrode.
This process is called electronic emission.
This can be achieved in 4 ways:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Thermionic emission
Photoelectric emission
Secondary emission
Field emission

Thermionic emission
The process by whichfree electronsare emitted from the surface
of a metal when external heat energy is applied is called
thermionic emission.
Thermionic emission occurs in metals that are heated to a very
high temperature. The heat supplies some electrons with at least
the minimal energy required to overcome the attractive force
holding them in the structure of the metal.
The amount minimal energy is called the work function,
The emission of particles from a hot filament was first discovered
by Thomas Edison in 1883 but the effect was left unexplained
until the discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson in 1897.

Factors affecting the rate of thermionic

emission
Nature of the metal surface: Lower the work function of
the metal, greater is the rate of emission of electrons
from the surface.
Temperature of the surface: Higher is the temperature,
more will be the rate of emission as the electrons will
have more kinetic energy to leave the surface
Surface area of the metal: Larger the surface area of the
metal, more is the rate of emission as thermionic
emission to some extent is like evaporation.

What is a cathode ray tube?

Thecathode ray tube(CRT) is avacuum tubecontaining
anelectron gun(a source of electrons) and
afluorescentscreen, with internal or external means to
accelerate and deflect the electron beam, used to create
images in the form of light emitted from the fluorescent
screen. The image may represent
electricalwaveforms(oscilloscope), pictures
(television,computer monitor),radartargets and others.

Basic Cathode Ray Tube

The CRT uses an evacuated glass

envelope which is large, deep,
heavy, and relatively fragile.

Electron Gun

he electron gun generates a beam of electrons which is targeted at the screen.

ectrons are being absorbed into the phosphorus layer, exciting it in order to emit
hoton particles of light.
he role of this section is toproduce electronsat ahigh, fixed, velocity.
his is done through a process known asthermionic emission.
filament in thecathodeis heated to the point where itselectrons become loose.
nanodewith ahigh voltageapplied to itacceleratesthe electrons towards the
creen due toelectrostatic attraction.
n the way, the electrons pass through a series ofcontrol gridswhich control
hebrightnessof the image produced.
he more negative the grid, the darker the image and vice versa.

Deflection system
The deflection system of the cathode-ray-tube consists of two
pairs of parallel plates, referred to as the vertical and
horizontal deflection plates. The role of the deflection system
is tocontroltheimage producedby controlling
thepositionthat the electrons hit the screen.
It consists ofTwo PERPENDICULAR setsofElectric/Magnetic
fields.
This allows control over bothhorizontal and verticalaxes.
By controlling theVoltage applied to the fields,it is possible to
vary the deflection throughElectrostatic force/Motor effect.

Fluorescent screen
The role of this part is todisplaywhere the electrons are
hitting the CRT.
It is a screen coated with a material thatemits light when
struckby electrons.
Zinc sulphide or Phosphorus are two commonly used
materials.

Applications of Cathode Ray Tube

Televisions
Before LCD or Plasma television, the CRT was used to create a
moving image.
It used the same principle as a CRT, and forBlack and
Whitetelevisions, that worked fine.
B&W TVs were essentially the same thing as a CRT, as all that's
needed is the control of the brightness of the beam.
A CRT TV works by having the electron beam "scan" the screen at
anrate faster than our eyes can perceive.
This means that it shoots across the screen like a machine gun,
and the images we see are actually made from manyfluorescent
dots.
The fluorescence caused by the beam striking the screenlasts a
bit longerso that the next scan can be made without the

Applications of Cathode Ray Tube

Colour CRT TVs had3 electron gunsrather than a single one, ashadow
mask,and amodified fluorescent screen.
The 3 electron guns were needed as there werethree primary
colours(Red, Green and Blue) that could be adjusted in different
amounts to create any colour.
The colours are formed as a result of theshadow mask,which is a layer
with holes in it thatcontrols the angleof the incoming electron beams.
This is because the fluorescent screen is separated intomulti-coloured
phosphorsthat are placed adjacent to each other at small intervals.
Thus it isn't actually a single coloured pixel, but rather 3 very small
pixels that join together to form a larger dot.

Cathode Ray Oscilloscopes

A Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO) is a diagnostic device that allows
one to "see" voltage.
It is essential a Cathode Ray Tube with two perpendicular sets
ofdeflecting electric plates.
The vertical set is where an input voltage is plugged in for the
oscilloscope to display.
However, the horizontal set is connected to a "sweep generator"
This is what provides aconstant, but adjustable, time basefor the
sweeping.
It essentially creates a "saw tooth voltage."
This is what causes the image to beanimated, and measured with
a linear scale.

Radioactivity

Discovered by Henry Becquerel in 1896.

Madam Curie and her husband Pierre Curie found that
uranium ore is more radioactive than pure uranium. Hence,
uranium was not the most radioactive thing. More
radioactive elements: radium, polonium, and actinium.
RADIOACTIVITY OF A MATERIAL IS FIXED AND CANT BE
CHANGED BY HEATING/FREEZING/ELECTRIC
FIELDS/MAGNETIC FIELDS BECAUSE RADIOACTIVITY IS NOT
DEPENDENT ON ORBITAL ELECTRONS. IT IS THE PROPERTY
OF THE NUCLEUS KNOW AS NUCLEAR PHENOMENON.
THE RADIOACTIVITY OF A SUBSTANCE IS MEASURED BY
CHECKING THE RATE OF DECAYING. MORE RADIOACTIVE
MATERIALS DECAY FASTER.

Rate of radioactive decay

The rate of radioactive decay is described in half-lives.
We cant tell if a given sample of atoms will decay in the
next few years or in the next few seconds, but what we
can tell is how long it takes for half the radioisotopes in
a sample to decay. This is called half life.
Example: The half life of Carbon 14 is 5730 years. So if you
have 100 atoms of carbon 14, 50 atoms would have will have
decayed in 5370 years.

Pioneers in Radioactivity
Rutherford:

Roentgen:

Discoverer
Alpha and
Beta rays
1897

The Curies:
Discoverers
of Radium
and
Polonium
1900-1908

Discoverer
of X-rays
1895

Becquerel:
Discoverer
of
Radioactivit
y 1896

Type of Radioactivity:By the end of the 1800s, it was known

that
certain isotopes emit penetrating rays.
Three types of radiation were known:
1)Alpha particles ()
2)Beta particles
3)Gamma-rays

()
()

Radioactivty
Atomsbecome unstable due to large neutron to proton ratio. Such
unstable nucleusemitted some radiations and convert in to some other
stable nucleus and knownas radioactive elements. Theseradiations are
termed as radioactive rays.
If the radiations given out by a radioactive substance are subjected to an
electric field perpendicular to their path, they separate into three
constituents.
Those which turn towards the negative plate are the positively charged alpha
particles.
Those, which turn towards the positive plate, are the negatively charged beta
particles.
Those, which pass un deviated, are the uncharged gamma radiations.

Further investigation has shown that an alpha ray is a stream of helium

nuclei, a beta ray is a stream of electrons and a gamma ray is an
electromagnetic radiation whose frequency is higher than that of X-rays.

Alpha radiation
Alpha radiation is a heavy, very short-range particle and is
actually an ejected helium nucleus.
Most alpha radiation is not able to penetrate human skin.
Alpha-emitting materials can be harmful to humans only if
the materials are inhaled, swallowed, or absorbed through
open wounds.
Instruments cannot detect alpha radiation through even a
thin layer of water, dust, paper, or other material, because
alpha radiation is not penetrating.
Alpha radiation travels only a short distance (a few inches)
in air, but is not an external hazard.

Alpha radiation
Because alpha particles contain two protons, they have
a positive charge of two. Further, alpha particles are
very heavy and very energetic compared to other
common types of radiation. These characteristics allow
alpha particles to interact readily with materials they
encounter, including air, causing many ionizations in a
very short distance.
Examples of some alpha emitters: radium, radon, uranium,
thorium.

Beta radiation

Beta radiation is a light, short-range particle and is actually

an ejected electron.
Beta radiation may travel several feet in air and is
moderately penetrating.
Beta radiation can penetrate human skin to the "germinal
layer," where new skin cells are produced. If high levels of
beta-emitting contaminants are allowed to remain on the
skin for a prolonged period of time, they may cause skin
injury.

Beta radiation
On the emission of a beta particle, a neutron in the
nucleus divides into a proton and an electron. The beta
particle is thus the electron that is rejected from the
nucleus at high speed. Beta particles have a greater
penetration power than the alpha particles and can
easily travel through the skin. Though beta particles
have less ionization power than the alpha particles but
still they are dangerous and so their contact with the
body must be avoided.
Examples of some beta emitters: strontium-90, carbon14, tritium, and sulfur-35.

Gamma radiation
Like all forms of electromagnetic radiation, the gamma ray has
no mass and no charge.
Gamma radiation are highly penetrating electromagnetic
radiation.
Gamma radiation are able to travel many feet in air and many
inches in human tissue. They readily penetrate most materials
and are sometimes called "penetrating" radiation.
Dense materials are needed for shielding from gamma radiation.
Gamma radiation is easily detected by survey meters with a
sodium iodide detector probe.
Examples of some gamma emitters: iodine-131, cesium-137,

Uses of Radioactivity
To check for oil or gas leaks
To treat cancer
To sterilize medical equipment
To kill germs in food in some countries(in very minimal
quantities)
For Carbon Dating
For fuels in nuclear power stations
To study the growth of plants
For production of atomic batteries

Carbon Dating
Carbon has 3 isotopes of which C-14 is a radioactive
substance which therefore decays over time.
The half life of Carbon-14 is approx. 5730 years.
Living bodies contain C-14. When they die the there is
no more consumption in any form. The C-14 atoms
continue to decay; by measuring the amount of C-14
radioactivity, scientists can tell the age of a once living
substance.

Safety precautions
These radiations are harmful to life and some safety
precautions need to be taken.
People working with radioactive isotopes must wear protective
clothing. The workers must be checked regularly with
dosimeters, and appropriate measures should be taken in
cases of overdose.
Radioactive materials must be stored in thick lead containers.
Reactor and laboratories dealing with and conducting
experiments with radioactive metals must be surrounded with
thick concrete lined with lead.
Radioactive waste must be sealed and buried deep in the
ground.

Why is lead used to block radiation?

It is very dense. This means that the number of
interactions that a radiation particle will undergo is
higher over a fixed distance which causes the radiation
toattenuate (reduction in the strength of a signal.).
It has a high proton number Z. This means that the
charged radiation particles will scatter through large
angles, also causing attenuation.