The Hydrologic Cycle

and Rainfall Runoff Processes

Water A Renewable Resource

1.4109 km3 of Water on Earth

Oceans are 3.8 Billion Years Old

Hydrologic Cycle is a Closed Loop

Fresh Water is Limited

97.5% of Water in Oceans

2.5% Fresh Water

Most in Ice Sheets

0.036% in Lakes, Rivers and Reservoirs
0.001% in Clouds

W Bryson, A Short History of Nearly Everything

R Wurbs & WP James Water Resources Engineering

Earths Total Water Volume

(15 L Water Bottle)

Total Fresh Water Volume

(375 mL Can of Coke)

Fresh Water in
Lakes, Rivers and Reservoirs
(Metric teaspoon 5.4 mL)

The Hydrologic Cycle

Hydrologic Cycle
In a global sense, the occurrence,
distribution and movement of water
in the natural environment can be
visualized through a cyclic process
known as the hydrologic cycle.

Hydrologic System
Precipitation

Hydrologic System
Subsystems:
- Atmospheric (Meteorology)
- Hydrosphere (Hydrology)
- Lithosphere (earth contents)
Processes:
- Evaporation/Evapotranspiration
- Precipitation
- Streamflow

Components of Hydrologic
Cycle

Australias Water Balance

Precipitation

736 mm/yr
6,405 km3/yr

Evapotranspiration

69.3% of Precipitation

Surface Water Flow

23.4% of Precipitation

Groundwater Flow

7.3% of Precipitation

* Based on Data by
Wurbs & James Water
Resources Engineering

Effect of Climate
Climate Affects Rainfall
Magnitude
Frequency

Impact on Flooding

Rainfall Intensity (How Fast it Falls)

Rainfall Duration (How Long it Falls)

Ecosystem Health
Dry Period
Wet Periods
Flood Events

www.bom.gov.au/climate/environ/other/kpn_all.shtml

Seasonality Index
1
SI
R
SI

12

j 1

Median Annual
Rainfall (mm/yr)

R
Xj
12
Climate

Melbourne 0.160

644

Temperate, No Dry Season

Brisbane

0.390

1118

Sub-tropical, No Dry Season

Perth

0.788

744

Sub-tropical, Distinctly Dry Summer

Darwin

0.909

1617

Equatorial

Sydney

0.217

1171

Temperate, No Dry Season

Global Warming
Greenhouse Effect

Human Induced Increase in Atmospheric CO2

Climate Depends on Greenhouse Effect

Clouds, Vapour and CO2 Reflect Outgoing
Solar Radiation
Otherwise Unbearably Cold on Earth

Impact on Hydrology

Unknown at this Time

Increased Variability?

Flooding in Rivers and Streams

A Natural Process
Flow Exceeds Channel Banks
Flooding of Floodplains

Produces Fertile Areas Adjacent to River

Development of Cities and Civilisations

Egypt and the Nile River

Economic Loss
Loss of Life

Precipitation
All liquid and frozen water that falls from the
atmosphere to the earths surface.
R Wurbs & WP James Water Resources Engineering

Source is Atmospheric Water Vapour

Air Must Cool to Bring to Near Saturation
Point
Condensation or Freezing Nuclei Required
Small Particles such as Salt, Clay, Dust etc

Precipitation
Liquid Droplets Initially Form Clouds or Fog
Liquid Drops Become Larger
Collision and Coalescence

Precipitation Occurs
Fall Velocity Exceeds Rising Rate of Air

Unsaturated Air Below Clouds

Small Drops will Evaporate before Hitting Ground

Convective Precipitation
Solar Heated Air Rises
Takes up Water Vapour
Warm Moist Air Becomes Unstable
Pronounced Vertical Currents Develop

Dynamic Cooling Occurs

Condensation and Precipitation

Light Showers to Intense Thunderstorms

Typical in Tropical Areas

Convective Precipitation

Orographic Precipitation
Moist Air is Lifted Over Mountain Barriers
A Mechanical Process which Requires
Moist Air
Appropriate Air Currents
A High Land Mass Barrier

East of Great Dividing Range in Australia

Southwest Tasmania

Orographic Precipitation

Cyclonic Precipitation
Air Movement

High Pressure to Low Pressure Regions

Unequal Heating of Earths Surface

Low Pressure at Centre

High Wind Speeds
Rotation Caused by Coriolis Effect

Clockwise in S Hemisphere (Cyclone)

Anti-Clockwise in N Hemisphere (Hurricane)

Warm Air Mass Lifted Over Colder Denser

Air Mass

www.bom.gov.au/cgi-bin/climate/cgi_bin_scripts/annual-monthly-rainfall.cgi

Precipitation Measurement
Varies Spatially
Varies Temporally
Daily Rain Gauge

Usually Measured at 9.00 am

Rainfall Intensity

Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge

Rainfall Hyetograph

Standard Rain Gauge

www.usatoday.com/weather/wrngauge.htm

Tipping Bucket Rain Gauge

www.usatoday.com/weather/wtipgage.htm

Rainfall Hyetograph

Time Interval ??

Evaporation and Transpiration

More than 50% of Precipitation
Evaporation

Transformation of Liquid to Vapour Phase

From Water, Soils and Wet Surfaces

Transpiration

Evaporation from Plant Leaves

Plants Take Moisture from Soil

Evapotranspiration

Evaporation & Transpiration Combined

Pan Evaporation Measurements

Pan Evaporation Measurement

Pan evaporation
values are higher
than the actual lake
evaporation
Eactual= Epan* K
K = Adjustment
factor
K ranges from 0.64
to 0.81

The Catchment
Area of Land that Contributes Runoff to
the Outlet
Based on Topography
Defined by Contours
Water Runs Down Hill (Generally)

Position of Outlet Defines Catchment

Boundary
Measure Plan Area
Area Projected onto a Horizontal Plane

Catchment Outlet

Catchment Boundary Exercise

Sub-Catchment Outlet

Hydrologic Processes
Direct Runoff

Runoff that Flows Directly to Outlet

Abstractions

Losses of Precipitation

Streamflow
BaseFlow

Streamflow Not Resulting from Recent

Precipitation

Direct Runoff
Runoff that Flows Directly to Outlet
Rainfall Excess
Rainfall Volume that Leads to Direct
Runoff

Includes

Interflow

Fast Flow Through Pervious Soil

Surface Runoff

Abstractions/Losses
Losses Collectively, that part of the rainfall that
does not show up as runoff.
Abstractions: Interception, Surface Storage,
Depression Storage and infiltration.

Losses of Precipitation
Interception

Stored Temporarily on Leaves etc

Depression Storage

Stored Temporarily in puddles etc

Infiltration

Stored as Soil Moisture

Interception
Interception storage is that portion of the
rainfall that is intercepted by trees,
plants, obstacles, and vegetation before it
can reach the ground.
Interception occurs in the initial part of
the storm and eventually the intercepting
surfaces become wet ( maximum holding
capacity)

Depression Storage
That part of the rainfall prevented from
becoming runoff by being trapped in small
puddles and depressions on the ground
surface.
It can occur over pervious and impervious
surfaces.
The water stored in the depressions will
evaporate/infiltrate eventually.

Infiltration
The flow of water into the ground through the
earths surface.

Experimental Measurement

Infiltration Rates

Initial Loss & Continuing Loss

Stream Classifications
Ephemeral

Flow Only Occurs After Rain

No Baseflow

Perennial

Flow Occurs All of the Time

Baseflow is Continuous

Intermittent

Some Reaches Flowing & Some Dry During Dry

Season

Streamflow or Runoff Hydrograph

Runoff Volume = Rainfall Excess Catchment Area

(m3)

(m)

(m2)

Runoff Volume = Area Under Hydrograph

Rainfall Volume = Rainfall Excess + Losses

Runoff Calculation Example

Runoff from a storm has been recorded at the
outlet to a catchment with a plan area of
141.30 ha. Total rainfall was 95mm and
recorded total runoff volume was 64.27ML.
Calculate the Rainfall Excess for the storm.
Calculate the Total Loss,

Give answer in mm and as a percentage of the Total

Rainfall.

Runoff Hydrograph

Rainfall Hyetograph

Runoff Example Solution

Total Runoff Volume = 64.27 ML
Using Trapezoidal Rule

Total Rainfall = 95 mm
Rainfall Excess = 45.48 mm

Rainfall that directly becomes runoff

Rainfall Loss = 49.52 mm = 52.1%

Streamflow Measurement
Temporal Variation in Discharge
Determine Rating Curve for Stream

Stage/Discharge Curve
Water Surface Elevation (Stage) vs Discharge

Regularly Measure River Stage

Ultrasonic Sensor
Pressure Sensor

Convert Measurements to Discharge

Using Rating Curve

Rating Curve

Rating Curve
Flow in Main Channel Only

Flow in Main Channel & Flood Plain

Deriving Rating Curve

Theoretical Relationship
Manning Equation etc
Not Very Accurate
OK for Weirs etc

Stream Gauging

Flow Measured During Runoff Events

Measure Velocity at Points Across Stream
Use Velocity Area Method
Q=VA

Stream Gauging

Measuring Velocity
Logarithmic Velocity Profile

Vav

Average Velocity

V20

Velocity at 20% of Depth

V80 Velocity at 80% of Depth

Shallow Depths

Adopt Velocity at 60% of Depth (V60)