CHAPTER 3

Heredity
and
Variation

containing

Built up of

Human

Cells

determining
Characterist
ics/ traits

Genes

Chromosom
es
containing

containing

DNA

3.1 CELL DIVISION

Chromosomes, genes and DNA
Life cycle and cell division
Mitosis: growth
Meiosis: sexual reproduction

Chromosomes, genes
and DNA

Cik Emy

NUCLEUS
CHROMOSOMES
-threadlike structure
-human beings have 46 (23
pairs
-contain protein and DNA
DNA
- Double helix structure
- -Made up of series of
genes
GENE
- Segment of DNA
-Genetic codes which
determine an organism
characteristics

Mitosis
Definition:
A cell division process in which a
parent cell (original cell) divides
into two identical daughter cells
(new cells)
Occurs in:
Human and animal : somatic cells
Plants: tips of roots and shoots

tp://youtube.co/watch?v=nPG6480RQo0

Stages of mitosis
nucleus membrane

Chromosomes in the nucleus

shorten, thicken and more
visible.

chromatid

Replication of chromosomes
occur.
Each strand of chromosome is
called chromatid.
centromere

 Spindle fibres emerge.

Chromosomes align themselves in
the centre of the cell.
The nucleus membrane disappears.
spindle fibres

Chromatids divide and separate to

the opposite ends of the cell.
At the same time the cell starts to
divide.
The nucleus membrane forms
again.
Two daughter cells are formed.
Each daughter cell has the same
number of the chromosomes as the
parent cell.

http://youtube.co/watch?v=AhgRhXl7w_g&feature=f
or
vst
http://youtube.co/watch?v=cvlpmmvB
_m4

The Importance of
Mitosis
Produce new cells for
growth unicellular
zygote to
multicellular organism

Produce new cells for

replacing dead
cells/repairing
tissues

Vegetative
reproduction such as
rhizomes, tubers,
leaves

Asexual reproduction
for simple organism
like amoeba

Regenerate body
parts such as lizard
grows a new tail

Meiosis
Definition:
A process in which a nucleus of a parent cell
divides into four daughter cells through
two divisions.
The daughter cells will have half the number
of chromosomes in parent cell.
Occurs in reproductive organs to produce
gametes (ovum and sperms):
Human and animals: testes (male) and ovary
(female)
Plants : anthers and ovaries

tp://youtube.co/watch?v=D1_-mQS_FZ0

Stages Of Meiosis : Meiosis 1 And Meiosis 2

Meosis 1

Chromosomes in the
nucleus shorten, thicken
and more visible.

Crossing over and

replication process occur
on chromatids.

 Chromosomes align
themselves in the centre of the
cell.
The nucleus membrane
disappears.
Chromatids separate and
move to the opposite ends of
the cell.
The cell begins to divide into
two.
Two daughter cells are
produced.
The nucleus membrane
reforms.

Meosis 2

Spindle fibres emerge.

Chromosomes align themselves
in the centre of the cell.
The nucleus membrane
disappears.
Chromatids divide and separate
to the opposite ends of the cell.
The cell starts to divide.
The nucleus membrane is
formed again.
Four daughter cells are formed.
Each daughter cell has half of
the number of chromosomes in
the parent cell.

tp://youtube.co/watch?v=eaf4j19_3Zg

The Importance of
Meiosis
1. To
produce
gametes
2. To allow
variation
through :

Crossing
over
process
Independent
assortment
of
chromosom
es

(characteristics are separated

during formation of gamete
and randomly combined
during fertilization)

Conclusion Of Mitosis
And
Meiosis
Male
Female
(46 chromosomes)

Sperm
23 chromosomes)

(46 chromosomes)

Meiosis
Fertilisation
Zygote
(46 chromosomes)

Mitosis
Baby
(46 chromosomes)

Ovum
(23 chromosomes)

Comparing Meiosis And Mitosis

tp://youtube.co/watch?v=Ba9LXKH2ztU

Similarities And Differences

Between Mitosis And Meiosis
Replicatio
n of DNA
takes
place

SIMILARIT
IES
Cell
division
occurs

Involves
division of
nucleus
and
cytoplasm

The Difference Between Mitosis

And Meiosis
MITOSIS

DIFFERENCES

MEIOSIS

One only

Number of division

Two times

Occur

Replication process

Occur in the first

division

Four

Number of daughter
cells produced

Two

Same as in parent cell

Number of
chromosomes in
daughter cell

Half of parent cell

Same as parent cell

Combination of gene

Different from parent cell

Does not occur

Crossing over process

Occur

3.2 THE PRINCIPLES AND MECHANISM

OF
INHERITANCEGene
Exist in pair

Dominant gene

Recessive gene

-A gene which expresses

the trait when paired with
a dominant or recessive
gene
-Denote as capital letter,
eg
T (tall)

-A gene which expresses the

trait when paired with a
recessive gene only (in the
absence of a dominant
gene)
-Denote as small letter, eg t
(short)

Dominant trait

Recessive trait

Characteristics controlled
by dominant genes

Characteristics controlled
by recessive genes

Chromosomes are in pair. One

from the father while the other
one from the mother.
Homologous chromosomes
t

Same genes:
Dominant gene and
recessive gene are
placed
opposite to each other

Examples of dominant and recessive

traits

Trait

Dominant

Recessive

Earlobes

Free earlobes

Attached earlobes

Tounge

Ability to roll

Inability to roll

Dimples

Presence

Absence

Hair

Curly

Straight

Iris
colour

Brown

Blue

Height

Tall

Dwarf

The Mechanism Of Trait Inheritance

Gregory Mendel was the first person

who discovered the principles of
heredity.
Genotyp
e

The genetic
information of an
organism

Phenoty
pe

The physical
characteristics of an
organism

Monohybrid Inheritance By Gregory Mendel

Phenotype :
Genotype :

Tall (pure breed)

Dwarf (pure breed)

TT
T

Gametes

tt
t

F1 Generation
Genotype :

Tt
Tall

Phenotype :

Gametes

Tt
Tall

Tt
Tall

Tt
Tall

Tt
Tall

tt
Dwarf

F2 Generation
Genotype :
Phenotype :

TT
Tall

Tt
Tall

Key:
Homozygous: both
genes are
same
Eg: TT, tt
Heterozygous: genes
are
different
Eg: Tt

Exercise 1
In the pea plant, the gene for round
seed(R) is dominant to the gene for
wrinkled seed(r).
a) If a homozygous round-seeded pea
plant is crossed with a homozygous
wrinkled-seeded plant, what will be the
phenotype of F1 plants?
b) If the F1 plants are self-pollinated, what
will be the genotype and phenotype
ratios of the F2 plants?

a)

Key:
R: round seeded
r : wrinkled
seeded

Parental Phenotype : Round seed

Parental Genotype :
RR
Gametes

F1 Generation

Rr
Round

Rr
Round

Wrinkled seed
rr
r

Rr
Round

Rr
Round

Hence all the F1 plants have round seeds.

b)

F1
Generation

Gamet
es

Rr

F2 Genotype
RR
F:2
Roun
Phenotype :
d

Rr

Rr

Rr

rr

Roun
d

Roun
d

Wrinkle
d

enotype ratio is 1 RR:2 Rr: 1rr

enotype ratio is 3 plants with round seeds : 1 plant with wrinkled

Exercise 2
B represents the dominant gene for
black cat, and b represents the
recessive gene for a white cat.
What is the phenotype ratio of the
number of black cats to the number
of white cats if black fur cat (Bb) is
crossed with another black fur cat
(Bb)?

Answer:
Key:
R: black cat
r: white cat

Parents

Gamet
es
F1 Genotype
F:1
Phenotype :

Bb

Rb

BB

Bb

Bb

bb

Blac
k

Black

BlackWhite

Phenotype ratio is 3 black fur cats: 1 white fur cat

Exersice 3
In the pea plant, the gene for purple
flowers (P) is dominant to the gene
for white flowers (p). A cross
between a heterozygous pea plant
with purple flowers and a
homozygous pea plant with
white flowers is done.
What are the genotypes of the
offsprings?

Answer:
Key:
Pp: heterozygous ,
purple flower
pp: homozygous , white
flower

Parents

Gamet
es
F1 Genotype
F:1
Phenotype :

Pp

pp

Pp

Pp

pp

pp

Purpl
e

Purpl
e

Genotype ratio is 2 Pp : 2 pp

White

White

3.3 SEX DETERMINATION AND THE

OCCURRENCE OF TWINS IN HUMAN BEINGS

Sex chromosomes: the last pair in human

chromosomes

Male: 22 pairs of
autosomes and a pair of

Female: 22 pairs of
autosomes and a pair of sex

 Sex determination : the sex of baby is determined

by
the fathers sperm (XY)

Gamete cells:

44 + XY

or

44 + XX

Fertilisation

Baby
Baby girl
boy
44+XX
44+ XY

Mother

Parents :

4
4

2
2

Gametes :

Offsprings: 4

X
X

Daughter

Father
X
X

4
4

2
2

4
4

X
Y

Son

2
2

4
4

X
X

Daughter

X
Y

2
2

4
4

X
Y

Son

Ratio of daughter : son is 1:1

Therefore , the chance to get daughter or son is 50:50.

The Formation Of Identical And Non-identical

Twins
IDENTICAL
TWINS
An ovum is fertilised
by a sperm to form a
zygote.

NON-IDENTICAL
TWINS
Two different ova
fertilised by two
different sperms at the
same time.

Zygote undergoes
mitosis and separates
into two to develop into
two embryos.

Two different zygotes

are formed and develop
into two embryos.

Genetically identical.

Genetically different.

Share the same

placenta.

Each has own

placenta.

Same sex.

Same sex or different

sex.

IDENTICAL
TWINS

NON-IDENTICAL
TWINS

BUTTT!!!!

IDENTICAL
TWINS

Zygote
undergoe
s mitosis
Two
embryos

Foetus
share the
same
placenta

NONIDENTICAL
TWINS

Two ova
are
fertilise
d
Two
different
zygotes are
formed
Two
separate
embryos

Each
foetus
has his
own
placenta

 Siamese twins
Identical twins that are joined at some
parts of the bodies.
Formed when zygote fails to divide
completely in the course of formation.

Similarities And Differences Between Identical And

Non-identical TwinsNONIDENTICAL
TWINS

IDENTICAL
TWINS

Similarities:
The twins are formed in the uterus.
Two babies are formed.
Differences
One

Number of ova

Two

One

Number of sperms

Two

Yes

Fertilised ovum
splits into two

No

Same / identical

Genetic make up

Different

Yes / sharing
placenta

Sharing of
placenta

No / separate
placenta

Same sex

Sex

Same or different
sex

Why do these happen to

them?

3.4 MUTATION
Mutation: the spontaneous change
to the structure of genes or
chromosomes
Occurs in

Somatic/body
cells
(can be passed
down through
mitosis)

Gametes/reprod
uctive cells
(inherited)

TYPES OF
MUTATION

Gene mutation

Chromosome
mutation

Change in the
structure of DNA

A change in the
number of
chromosomes or in
the structure

Examples Of Chromosome
Mutation
Downs syndrome: an extra chromosome
in autosome 21 (47 chromosomes)
Klinefelters syndrome: a male with
extra X chromosome (XXY)
Turners syndrome: a female with one
less X chromosome (XO)
Polyploidy: having one or more
chromosomes in a set of chromosome

Examples Of Gene Mutation

Colour blindness: a mutated gene in the X
chromosome
Sickle cell anemia: mutation in gene that
produces haemoglobin; inefficient in transporting
oxygen in the blood
Albinism: the gene for skin colour is mutated;
unable to produce black pigment (melanin)
Haemophilia: mutation in gene that is
important for blood-clotting

Examples Of Chromosome
Mutation
Downs syndrome

Additional chromosome at autosome 21

Physical retardation
Thick neck
Slanted eyes
Protuding tounge
Reduced resistance to diseases

Klinefelters syndrome
A male with extra X
chromosomes (having XXY)
Infertile
Underdeveloped testes
Narrow shoulder
Enlarged breasts

Turners syndrome
A female having one less X
chromosome (XO)
Infertile
Short
Mentally retarded
Has no ovaries
Small breasts
Folded skin on neck
No menstrual cycle

Polyploidy
The number of chromosomes is
increased by one or more sets.
More common in plants.

Examples Of Gene
Mutation
Colour blindness
Mutant gene (recessive gene)
on the X chromosome.
Not able to differentiate colours
especially green and red
More common in males because
male has only one X
chromosome

 Colour Blind

Colour Blind Test

Albinism
The gene for skin colour is
mutated (recessive gene)
Unable to produce melanin
(black pigment)
White hair
Pink eyes and pinkish skin
Skin is sensitive to sunlight

Sickle-cell anemia
Mutation in gene that
produce haemoglobin
Sickle-cell shaped of red blood
cells
Not efficient in transporting
oxygen
Facing painful crises such as
chest pain,
fatigue, bone pain,
Yellowing of eyes
Inherited from both parents

Haemophilia
Mutation in chromosome X
(for blood clotting)
Have problem in blood clotting
May bleed continuously or for
a longer
period
A woman carrier may inherit
the
disease to a son

Causes Of Mutation
Spontaneous
changes during
cell division

Exposure to chemical
mutagens: Benzene,
formaldehyde,
nicotine, sodium
nitrite, pesticides

Exposure to
physical
mutagens: UV
radiation, X-rays,
radioactive radiation

Environmental
change: the change of
temperature for a long
period causes genetic
evolution in organism

Advantages And Disadvantages

Of Mutation
Advantages

-variation
trait

diff.

-more resistant
to disease

Disadvanta
ges
Cause physical
defects
Causes genetic
diseases
Causes mental
defects

3.5 THE EFFECTS OF GENETIC

RESEARCH
ON
HUMAN
LIFE
Field of
Gene therapy: to
replace damaged/faulty
genes during the foetal
stage
Genetic screening: to
predict diseases likely
to develop

Medicine

Gene test: to screen

unborn children for
diseases
Genetic engineering:
to transfer DNA from
one organism to
another
Human genome
project: maps all
human genes to
determine genes which
causes diseases

To produce plants which

are resistant to
diseases and infections
To produce engineered
plants which are able
to live in
unfavourable
conditions
To produce plants which
grow and mature fast

Field of
Agriculture

To produce higher
yields
To produce high
quality of crops and
livestock

Selective Breeding
A process which involves
cross breeding and
cloning of plants or animals

Advantages

Disadvantages

New varieties

new varieties with

undesirable
characteristics

To produce new
and high quality
crops
More resistant to
diseases

Example 1: Cow
is cross bred
with
Friesian Cow

Sahiwal Cow

Mafriwal Cow
-Grow faster
-Bigger in size
-More milk
-High resistant to

Example 2: Palm oil

Thin
mesocarp

Thick
mesocarp

is cross bred
with

Large
kennel

Dura

Small
kennel

Pisifera

Tenera
-Thick mesocarp and large kennel :much oil
-Thin shell: easier to extract

Tissue Culture

A process of cloning a plant by

using a plant part or single cell
in a test tube under a controlled
condition

Advantages
To produce many
To produce many
copies of the
same plants in a
short time
Shorter
maturation time
To produce plants
anytime we want

Disadvantages
No variation
Complete wipeout of crops if
there is spread of
diseases

Steps of Tissue Culture

a) Explant:

b) Multiplication:

c) Transplanting:

Process:

Cloning
The process of producing an
organism that is an exact
genetic copy of another

Genetically Modified
Food
-Foods from plants and animal
-adding genes from another
organisms

Advantages:
For crops:
enhanced taste
and quality,
increased yields,
matures faster,
better resistance
to diseases,
remain fresh
longer

For livestock:
increased
resistance to
infections and
diseases, higher
yield of milk,
meat and eggs

GMP

Disadvantages of Genetically Modified

Food and Organisms:
Cause allergies to human
beings

Milk of animal maybe unsafe

Antibiotic-resistant genes in
GM organisms may be pass on
to bacteria; difficult to kill them
Genetic research is expensive,
poor farmers cannot afford

3.6 VARIATION AMONG LIVING

THINGS
Variation:
Variation:
The differences among
individuals of the same
species

Continuou
s variation
-Characteristics among
individuals which do not
show distinct differences
-Quantitative and can be
measured
-Determined by genes
and can be influenced by
environmental factors

Discontinu
ous
variation
-Characteristics among
individuals which show
distinct differences
-Qualitative and cannot
be measured
-Determined by a single
gene and is not
influenced by
environmental factors

Continuou
s variation
Height

Length
of foot

Intelligenc
e
Skin
colour

Weight

Discontinu
ous
variation
Earlobe
s

Blood
group
Tongue
rolling

Colour
blindnes
s

Iris
colour

Factors That Cause

Variation
Genetic
factors

Environmen
tal factors

Crossing over during meiosis:

genetic material is exchanged

Sunlight exposure: will

have darker complexion

Random fusion of male and

female gametes during
fertilisations

Water climate,
temperature

Chromosome and gene

mutation: creates new
phenotypes

pH: the Hydrangea flower is

blue in acidic soil and pink in
alkaline soil

Independent assortment
of chromosomes: different
gametes

Diet: a person who eats a

lot will be fatter

Importance Of Variation
Ensures the survival
of a species under
changing
environment

Enable us to
distinguish
individuals of
the same
species

IMPORTANC
E

Enable natural
selection: species
with favourable
characteristics will
be selected by
nature

Enable any
species to
occupy a wider
range of habitat

 Discuss the similarities and

differences between continuous
variation and discontinuous variation.

Similarities And Differences Between

Continuous And Discontinuous Variation
CONTINUOUS
VARIATION

DISCONTINUO
US VARIATION

Similarity:
Show differences in characteristics
among individuals of the same
species
Differences

Not distinct

Characteristic

Distinct

Yes

Influenced by
environmental
factors?

No

Inheritance

Can be inherited

No of gene

Single gene

Type of data

Qualitative/
cannot be
measured

If it is influenced
by environmental
factors cannot be
inherited
Two or more
genes for the
same character
Quantitative/ can
be measured

3.7 THE NEED TO ADHERE TO A CODE

OF ETHICS IN GENETIC RESEARCH

Discuss the effects of misusing the

knowledge of genetics research.

We need code of ethics!!

The produce of
biological weapon:
anthrax bacteria

GMF may have side effects

and endanger human
health,
should be labelled

Human cloning:
against religion
Manipulation of
human genes when
carrying out research
on human being