PART 1

Module 1/5

Basic Air Systems

Objectives:
To define:
a) Ventilation
b) Air Conditioning
To look generally at the systems and
their components used for each of
the above

INTRODUCTION TO MODULE
The Commissioning of air systems
requires a basic knowledge of
ventilation and air conditioning and
when and why they are used. In this
module we will define ventilation and
air conditioning, look at the different
types of systems that you will see and
discuss the equipment used in them.

1. VENTILATIONS
Whenever people are present in an enclosed space, there is a natural
build-up of carbon dioxide, body odour, water vapour and heat.
Imagine being shut in a sealed room on a hot day with twenty other
people. In a short time, the air in the room will begin to feel stale. The
temperature of the room will begin to rise. There will be a distinct smell
of perspiration. If some of the people are smoking, the room air will feel
even staler. Ventilation is used to prevent a situation like this
happening.
Ventilation is normally a legal requirement whenever people are
gathered in public buildings, or in industrial processes where dust,
fumes and smoke may be present. With any ventilation system, the air
in the room containing contaminants is replaced by fresh air. This
creates air movement, which in turn creates a feeling of freshness.
Note:
The performance of ventilation systems is often based on "air
change rates" expressed in air changes per hour. This is the
amount of times the ventilation system will completely replace
all room air with fresh outside air in one hour.
There are two methods of ventilation, natural and mechanical. Let us
look at each in turn.

Natural Ventilation
Natural ventilation is provided by wind pressure, "stack effect" or
a combination of both.
Wind will cause a positive pressure on the windward side of a
building and a negative pressure on the leeward side. If windows
are open on both the windward and leeward side of the building,
there will be a natural air movement within the building from
windward to leeward side. This is due to air movement from the
positive to the negative pressure side.
Whenever the air temperature in a room is higher than outside,
the warm room air will always rise, drawing in cold air to replace
it. This principle is known as "Stack Effect". It follows that the
higher the room is, the further the "stack" of warm air can rise
and the more cold outside air will be drawn in.
These two forms of natural ventilation are best used by installing
fixed inlet openings at low level on the windward side of a
building and outlet openings at high level on the leeward side.
It can be seen that whenever it is either cold outside, windy or a
mixture of both, natural ventilation can be used to its' full
advantage.

Mechanical Ventilation

Unfortunately, due to the principles described above, natural ventilation will

not occur when it is hot and still outside. Also, it is impossible to control the
amount of air movement provided by natural ventilation (air change rate).
Man has no control over temperature and wind! For this reason, mechanical
ventilation systems generally are used whenever a positive air movement is
required or when a specific amount of air is required.
Note:
The amount of fresh air required varies depending upon the room
use. For example, a kitchen in a restaurant requires a higher air
change rate than an office. Tables B2.2 and B2.3 of CTBSE Guide
Book B give recommended air change rates for d4fferent areas and
uses.
Mechanical ventilation systems use a fan (or fans) to provide the necessary
air movement. This means that they can provide the correct amount of air
whenever it is required. Filters can also be installed so that dirt can be
removed from the incoming air or contaminants from the outgoing air.

There are three types of mechanical systems:

1.

Natural inlet, mechanical extract

2.

Mechanical inlet, natural extract

3.

Mechanical inlet and extract

Mechanical Ventilation
1. Natural inlet, mechanical extract
With this type of system a fan is used to extract air from a
room space.
This causes a negative pressure in the room, having the
effect of drawing air in from surrounding areas through
natural openings such as gaps around doors.
These systems are normally used in kitchens, toilet areas
and workshops.
Schematic diagram below shows a typical extract system,
consisting of a fan, ductwork and extract grilles.

Schematic Diagram (a)

Natural inlet, mechanical
extract system:

Mechanical Ventilation
2. Mechanical inlet, natural extract
With this type of system a fan is used to supply air to a room
space.
This causes a positive pressure in the room, having the effect
of forcing room air out to surrounding areas, again through
natural openings.
These systems are normally used to provide fresh air to
areas such as offices.
Schematic diagram below shows a supply system consisting
of a supply air handling unit, ductwork and supply grilles. The
air handling unit is made up of a filter, heater and fan.
Schematic Diagram (a)
Mechanical inlet, natural
extract system:

Mechanical Ventilation
1. Mechanical inlet and extract

With this type of system fans are used to both supply and extract
air.
The quantities of supply and extract air are often not matched. In
areas where it is necessary to prevent smells or fumes escaping to
other areas, more air is extracted than supplied, thereby causing a
negative pressure in the area.
Where it is important to prevent dust entering an area, more air is
supplied to the area than extracted, thereby causing a positive
pressure in the area.
This type of system is used to serve many different areas, including
those already described above.
Schematic diagram below shows a mechanical inlet and extract
system consisting of a supply air handling unit ductwork and grilles
and an extract fan, ductwork and grilles. The supply air handling
unit is again made up of a filter, heater battery and fan.
Schematic Diagram (a)
Mechanical inlet and
extract system:

Mechanical Ventilation
Note:

Most local authorities insist that toilet areas are served by

a twin fan extract unit. These have two fans and special
controls that automatically start the second fan if the first
should fail. This ensures that the toilet area is ventilated at
all times.

Filters are normally fitted in extract systems from kitchens.

Filters are normally fitted in extract systems serving areas

where hazardous fumes may be discharged to outside.

Filters are normally fitted in any supply system.

Supply air in a mechanical input system is almost always

heated to prevent cold draughts.

Mechanical input and mechanical output and extract

systems can all be used to provide heating to a room area,
where it is required.

2. AIR CONDITIONING
Definition
Air conditioning can be defined as control of the
environmental conditions of an area within preset
limits. This control may be required for the comfort
of people (or animals) or for the correct
performance of an industrial or scientific process.
Large computer installations, for example, need to
be maintained at a temperature of approximately
21C and a relative humidity of 50%. A ventilation
system will not normally provide this type of
control.
Air conditioning can be split into two main
classifications; close control and comfort. Let us
look at each in turn.

Close Control (or Full) Air Conditioning

Close control (or full) air conditioning systems are
used to control all environmental conditions in a
room. This means that the following elements will
all be kept within certain tolerances:
Air cleanliness
Room temperature
Room humidity
Room air movement / pressurisation
The processes that control these elements are
basically discussed below. These will be described
in far greater detail in later modules.

Close Control (or Full) Air Conditioning

Air Cleanliness
Air Cleanliness is controlled by using filters
to remove dust and dirt from the air
supplied to the room.
Many different grades of filters are
available, ranging from simple fibreglass
filters that remove larger particles only to
pleated paper filters that will remove
microscopic particles.

Close Control (or Full) Air Conditioning

Room Temperature
Room temperature is controlled by using heating and
cooling coils to either heat or cool air supplied to the room.
Heating coils can either be of the electric resistance type,
steam, or hot water.
Cooling coils are either supplied with chilled water or they
are fed directly with a refrigerant.
Where cooling coils are served directly by refrigerant, they
will be coupled to an air cooled condenser and a
compressor, so that the coil becomes the evaporator
element of the refrigeration cycle.
Low temperature hot water, chilled water and the
refrigerant cycle were all discussed in module 1/3.

Close Control (or Full) Air Conditioning

Room Humidity
Room humidity is controlled by either adding or removing moisture
from the air supplied to the room. Moisture is usually added by
introducing steam into the air stream. This can be done in one of
three ways:
1.

Passing the air over an open pan of water that has an electric element
heating the water to boiling point.

2.

Using a separate steam supply and injecting it directly to the air

stream by a sparge pipe. Sometimes, small. electrode boilers may be
used to provide steam for this process.

3.

Heating the air then passing it over a water spray. This method is
losing favour as it may be susceptible to developing the bacteria that
cause Legionnaires Disease.
Moisture is removed by cooling the air stream to below its' dewpoint
temperature. (Dewpoint being the temperature to which air can be
cooled without condensing the moisture it holds). This is known as
latent cooling and is again achieved by using a cooling coil; coils
served by refrigerant are more efficient in this instance.

Close Control (or Full) Air Conditioning

Room Air Movement
Room air movement is controlled in the manner
described previously in this module under
mechanical ventilation systems.
The components described above; filters,
heating and cooling coils, humidifer and a fan
are sometimes installed as separate
components connected by ductwork. However
they are usually grouped together in an air
handling unit. This can either be installed in
the room area itself, or in a separate plant
room with supply ductwork running from the
unit to serve grilles in the room area.

Close Control (or Full) Air Conditioning

A schematic diagram of a close control system is given below:

The following list gives some examples of areas where close

control air conditioning would be used:
Computer Rooms
Hospital Operating Theatres
Research Laboratories
Clean Rooms for the production and assembly of specialist
components such as video tape and electronic components

Comfort Air Conditioning

Air conditioning, as well as being essential for the processes

described previously can be very advantageous in every
day life. If air conditioning is used in offices and factories,
the working efficiency of staff can be much greater; if it is
used in shops, people are inclined to buy more; if it is used
in hotels, restaurants and theatres, patronage will be higher.
This is due to the fact that an air conditioned environment is
more comfortable than a non air conditioned one.
It would be very expensive to use a close control air
conditioning system in any of the examples given above. To
that end comfort air conditioning systems have been
developed. Comfort air conditioning is quite often called
comfort cooling; this is perhaps a better description.
Comfort air conditioning is used purely to maintain people
at comfortable conditions which normally means cooling
and not heating room air, even in winter. The reasons for
this will become apparent in later modules when heat gains
are discussed.

Comfort Air Conditioning

Comfort air conditioning can be carried out by the same type

of system as that used for close control air conditioning, but it
normally will not have a humidifier or any de-humidification
capability as humidity control is not particularly required. The
schematic diagram below shows a typical system.

Because humidity control is not required, alternative systems

such as fan coil units can be used as the primary method of
room cooling. However, an air handling unit, with filtration
and heating (and possibly cooling) is still necessary to provide
fresh air. Fan coil units were basically described in Module 1/4.

3. ENERGY CONSERVATION
The Need for Energy Conservation
All of the systems that we have looked at in this module
have in one form or another removed air from a room
area and replaced it with fresh air from outside. Room
air that has been heated or cooled is thrown away to be
replaced with more air that needs to be heated or
cooled. This is very uneconomical from an energy
viewpoint. To prevent this type of energy wastage,
various methods of energy conservation are employed
in ventilation and air conditioning systems.
The three major types of energy conservation systems
are:
Economy Control
Plate Heat Exchangers
Run Round Coils

Economy Control
With economy control, a variable proportion of the air extracted
from a room area is mixed with the incoming fresh air to the
room area.
This is achieved by connecting a re-circulation duct between the
fresh air input and exhaust ducts and installing motorised
dampers in all three ducts. A schematic diagram is given below:

Let us apply this principle to both a ventilation system and an

air conditioning system:

Economy Control
Ventilation System:
In Winter, the room air will be hot and the outside air will be
cold. By mixing as much hot extract air with fresh air as
possible, the air mixture will need only a small amount of
additional heating to raise it to the required supply
temperature. If you compare this against exhausting all of the
room air and then having to heat a corresponding amount of
fresh air to replace it, you can see that considerable savings in
heating costs can be made.
To achieve this pre-heating effect the dampers will need to be in
the following positions:
The fresh air inlet damper will be at its' minimum fresh air
position
The exhaust air damper will be at its' minimum exhaust position
The re-circulation air damper will be at its' maximum recirculation position.

Economy Control
Ventilation System:
In Summer, it is desirable to provide as much fresh air as
possible to the room area. This will provide cooling to the room
area whenever outside temperature is less than the room
temperature. This principle is known as free cooling.
To achieve this free cooling effect the dampers will need to be in
the following positions:
The fresh air inlet damper will be at its' maximum fresh air
position
The exhaust air damper will be at its' maximum exhaust position
The re-circulation air damper will be at its' minimum re-circulation
position (possibly even fully closed)
Note:
Whenever a ventilation system (or an air conditioning
system) supplies an area that is occupied by people, a
minimum amount of fresh air must be supplied to the area.
Table B24 of Book B of the CIBSE Guide gives fresh air
requirements for various applications.

Economy Control
Air Conditioning System:
If this arrangement is used with an air conditioning system, the
sequence of events is slightly different.
In both Winter and Summer, it is advantageous to have the
dampers in the same position as they would be for winter with a
mechanical ventilation system. This is because in the same way as
mixing fresh and re-circulation air in winter will provide a preheated air mixture, mixing fresh and re-circulation air in summer
will provide a pre-cooled air mixture.
In Spring and Autumn, it is advantageous to have the dampers
in the same position as they would be for summer with a
mechanical ventilation system. This is because an air conditioned
area will normally still require cooling even during these seasons.
By supplying fresh air that is colder than the room area,
advantage will be taken of the "free cooling" principle already
described. This means that the mechanical refrigeration system
may not have to be used and can give considerable energy
savings.

Plate Heat Exchangers

Sometimes, it is not possible to mix room air with fresh air,
particularly in industrial or scientific processes or in a
particularly moist environment such as a swimming pool. In
these instances a plate heat exchanger can be used. A plate
heat exchanger is basically a box containing a large number of
aluminium plates.
If the room air is warmer than outside air, by passing extract
air across one side of the plates, they will become heated. If
fresh air is then passed across the other side of the plates it
will pick up the heat recovered from the extract air. If the room
air is cooler than outside, the incoming fresh air will be cooled
slightly when passed across the plates.
This type of system is not very efficient. If used in conjunction
with a ventilation system, it can cause problems with preheating of the incoming fresh air in summer. This is because in
this type of system, the room air is vary rarely cooler than
outside air. To prevent this, a ductwork by-pass is required
around the heat exchanger for summer use.

Run Round Coils

Run round coils are another option that can be
used in situations where room air cannot be mixed
with fresh air. A typical run round coil system
comprises two heat recovery coils, one located in
the extract air ductwork and one in the fresh air
ductwork. The two coils are connected by a
pipework system complete with a pump.
As extract air is passed across the coil in the
extract duct, heat is picked up from the air and
passed to the water in the pipework system due to
a heat exchange across the coil. The heated water
is then pumped to the coil in the fresh air duct. As
the fresh air passes over the coil it picks up heat
from the water in the system.

4. VARIABLE AIR VOLUME

SYSTEMS

All of the systems described so far in this module

are known as Constant Air Volume (CAV)
Systems. This is because no matter how the supply
air temperature to the room area is altered, the
volume (amount) of air supplied remains constant.
The basic principles of cooling by means of
ventilation were discussed in Part 1 of this module.
If the temperature of the air supplied to a room is
lower than the room temperature, the room
temperature will be lowered accordingly, that is, the
room will be cooled. It follows that if more air is
supplied, more room cooling will occur. This
principle has been applied to air conditioning
systems, where the supply air temperature is
maintained at a relatively constant temperature,
but the quantity (volume) of supply air is varied to
suit the cooling load required. This type of system is
known as a Variable Air Volume (VAV) System.

4. VARIABLE AIR VOLUME

SYSTEMS

A variable air volume system normally consists of a supply air

handling unit; a supply air ductwork system and a number of
VAV control boxes, each connected to outlet grilles; an extract
air handling unit; an extract air ductwork system and a number
of extract air inlets. An economy system as described in Part 3
of this module is also used.
Each VAV box contains a modulating damper. The damper is
operated by a thermostat located near to the VAV box or in the
area being cooled by the VAV box. If cooling is required locally
to the VAV box, the thermostat will open the damper and allow
more air out of the box, offsetting local heat gains. If heating is
required, the thermostat will close the damper and allow less
air out of the box, causing local heat gains to build up and in
turn heat the area.
As the dampers in the VAV boxes close, less air needs to be
supplied to the boxes and extracted from the room areas. This
is achieved usually by slowing the speed of the supply and
extract fans, which means that they move less air.
Variable air volume systems will be discussed in greater depth
in later modules.

EXERCISES
1. Name 4 situations in which you use a
comfort cooling system as opposed to a
full air conditioning system? and explain
your reasons.
2. In the previous module (on water
systems) you investigated Legionnaires
Disease. What effect does this have on
the use of spray type humidifiers in air
conditioning systems?

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
1. Comfort cooling would be used as
opposed to Air Conditioning system:

Shops
Offices
Factories
Hotels
Restaurants Theatres

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
2. Spray type Humidifiers / Legionnaires Disease
i.

Legionella dose estimation from mist of cooling-towers

and spray apparatus, Yoshizawa S., Takuwa T., Tsubata
R. et al., Healthy Buildings/IAQ '97. Proc. Conference,
Washington DC 27th September - 2nd October 1997.
ASHRAE/ISIAQ, Woods, JOE. et al., eds., Vol. 1., 275-280,
figs, tabs, refs.
In order to estimate the exposure doses of Legionella, a
limited number of experiments were performed to
determine the characteristics of water droplets
generated by cooling towers, showers and bubble jets.
Size distribution and rate of generation were
determined by particle counters and impaction-type
particle samplers. The direct exposure doses from
these apparatus were estimated to be 2.7 x 10 to the
power 0 to 2.9 x 10 to the power - 4cfu/min for cooling
towers 0.6 x 10 to the power -2cfu/min for showers, 10
to the power -2 to 10 to the power -1cfu/min for bubble
jets if Legionella concentration in the original water is
10 to the power 5 cfu/100ml.

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
ii.

Micro-organisms in building services Stewart: L.J. BSRIA Technical

Note 3188, October 1988, 19pp.
Summarises in the form of information sheets those building
services systems which could be subject to colonisation by microorganisms, the potential hazards that they may create and the
basic preventive actions which should be taken. Refers to
published procedures for the safer selection and operation of
these systems. Discusses in general terms the risk of health
hazards arising from these systems. Points out that in most cases
the known incidents are rare and the risk is low. The plant
information sheets give guidance on
ii. Wet heat rejection
iii. Humidification
iv. Domestic hot water
v. Domestic cold water
vi. Sanitary
vii. Air treatment
viii. Ductwork.

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
iii. Outbreak of Legionnaires disease in Glasgow Royal
Infirmary, Microbiological aspects. Timbury: M.C. et al.,
(J. Hygiene), December 1986, Vol. 97, No.3, 393-403,
18 refs.
A report on the bacteriological and epidemiological
investigations leading to the rapid diagnosis and
containment of an outbreak of Legionnaires disease at
Glasgow Royal Infirmary in November 1985. Most of
the 15 patients affected had been treated in highdependency areas on two floors of the hospital
supplied by the same two air-conditioned ventilation
systems. The source of infection was traced to
contamination of a cooling tower from which a plune of
spray discharged into the intake vents of the two
ventilation systems. Rubber grommets within the
cooling tower remained persistently positive for
Legionella over a period of 18 days despite thorough
cleaning and repeated chlorination of the system.

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
iv. Monitoring and controlling the source of Legionnaires'
disease in cooling water McGlone: K. (Hospital Engng.)
September 1985, Vol. 39, No.8, 8.
Notes Legionnaires' disease is a relatively common
illness, mistaken for pneumonia before 1976. The
bacterium, which is ubiquitous in nature in low
concentrations, can become dangerous when left to
develop in man-made water systems. Industrial cooling
systems, humidifiers, domestic water supplies and
shower heads have all been found to contain traces of
the bacterium. Research has shown the only means of
infection is by inhalation of fine water spray containing
the bacterium. Explains how the application of the
correct waterside chemicals can help in both the
elimination and prevention of the bacterium. If this is
also coupled with the correct engineering practice, the
possibility of a Legionnaires' disease outbreak is
greatly reduced.

ANSWERS TO EXERCISES
v. Air conditioning fever. Anon. (Heat. Air Condit. J.)
September 1979, Vol. 49, No. 571, 12-15, 3 figs.
Contends it seems established that cases of
Legionnaires' disease and `humidifier fever' can
be traced directly to air conditioning equipment.
Only ducted systems probably with a spray type
humidifier are likely to propagate disease.
Prevention by good housekeeping practice is
simple and inexpensive. Swiss research shows
absenteeism with lung and bronchial infections is
20% higher among those working in air
conditioned areas. Examines air conditioningrelated diseases. Notes multiplication of microbes
in water reservoirs, and duct contamination.
Recommends preventive measures.