System Earthing

System Earthing
Earth faults :- 70 90% of all faults.

EA
IF

System Earthing

Earthing method determines :

Fault current IF

Damage caused

Steady state over voltages

Transient over voltages

Insulation requirements

Quantities available to detect faults

Type of Protection

Earthing Method
Solid / Low Z

High Z

IF

High

Low

Overvoltages in
Sound Phases

Low

High

Damage

High

Low

Cost of Insulation

Low

High

Low Voltage Systems

For Safety

Medium Voltage Systems To limit current

cost of insulation
acceptable
High Voltage &
EHV Systems

To limit cost
of insulation

Methods of Earthing In Common

Use

Solid or Direct Earthing

Resistance Earthing

Reactance Earthing

Resonant or Petersen Coil

Earthing

Insulated Earth

System Earthing
Solid
Lowest System Z0
IF High
- Damage
- Easy E/F Protn.
No Arcing Grounds IF >> ICHARGE
Lowest Overvoltages

System Earthing
Reactance
Lower IF
Higher Transient Overvoltages
Cheaper than resistance at high volts
Overvoltages during E/Fs
0.8 1 x V/
Not often used except as tuned
reactor

System Earthing
Petersen Coil
XE XCHARGING
Arcing faults self extinguishing
- Good for transient faults
XE needs changing if XC alters
Overvoltages during E/Fs V/
Insulation important
Restricts use of auto-transformers

Tuned

Discriminative E/F protection difficult

System Earthing
Resistance

Reduced IF
Reduced transient overvoltages
Not self extinguishing but E/F
easier to detect

System Earthing
Unearthed
Insulated
IF Capacitive
Can be self extinguishing if IF small
Overvoltages during E/Fs = V /
Arcing faults likely - high transient
overvoltages
Insulation important

System Earthing
660 V
660 V 33 kV

Solid
Insulated

- Safety
- Special cases where continuity

Resistance or reactance normally used

Solid
Resistance
Reactance
Petersen
Coil

When IF is low
IF limited to IFL
IF(E/F) limited to IF(3)
Overhead lines. Lightning

> 33 kV

Solid
Overvoltages more important (insulation)

Directly Coupled
Generators

Resistance - Most common

Solid and
- Not recommended
Reactance (High IF )

of supply required

System Earthing
Generator - Transformer Units

IF ~ 10 15 A

IF ~ 200 300 A

Low Voltage System Earthing

Safety :

Power system neutral solidly earthed at transformer.

Metallic tools and appliances solidly earthed.

Sensitive protection by :RCDs :-

Residual current devices

ELCBs :- Earth leakage circuit breakers

Earth Fault Hazard

Unearthed
Appliance

ZF

ZP

ZF =

Fault impedance

ZP =

Human body impedance

ZE =

Environmental impedance

VP =

Case / earth potential

VP
ZE

Earth Fault Hazard

RCD for High ZF

Unearthed
Appliance

Fuses for
High IF
IF
ZF

Protective Earth Conductor

ZF =

Fault impedance

ZP =

Human body impedance

ZE =

Environmental impedance

VP =

Case / earth potential

VH

ZP
VP
ZE

Without protective earth : ZP

VH E/N .
ZP ZF ZE

Unearthed L.V. Winding

Normal
Conditions

v
H.V.

L.V.

Unearthed L.V. Winding

Inter-winding fault F
causes dangerous rise
in L.V. voltage
yv

VF
L.V.

xV

H.V.

VF = xV + (1 - y)v

Breakdown Between HV and LV

Windings
3000 / 440 V

Transformer

A2

1730V

a2
n

N
c2
C2

254V
b2

B2

Normal voltage conditions

Neutrals earthed or unearthed

Breakdown Between HV and LV Windings

A2

1730V

xH

xL

254V

n
850V

C2

95V

a2

c2

1009V
b2

755V

B2

Voltage conditions with breakdown

between HV and LV at point X on
phase
LV neutral unearthed

Hand to Hand Resistance of Living

Body - 50Hz AC (Freiburger 1933)

6000

Resistance - Ohms

5000
4000
Very Dry Skin

3000
2000

Very Moist Skin

1000

100

200

300
400
Volts

500

600

Effects of Body Current

1mA

Can be felt

> 9mA

Cannot let go

15mA

Threshold of cramp

30mA
Breathing difficult
Rise in blood pressure
50mA

Heart misses odd beat

50 200mA
Heavy shock
Unconsciousness
> 200mA
Reversible cardiac arrest
Current marks
Burns

Effects of Various Values of Body

Current
Current at 50Hz
to 60Hz r.m.s. of shock
value mA

Duration

0-1

not
critical

Range up to threshold of perception.

Electrocution not felt.

1-15

not
Range up to threshold of cramp.
Critical
Independent release of hands from object gripped no longer possible. Possibly
powerful and sometimes painful effects on muscles of fingers and arms.

15-30

minutes
Cramp-like contraction of arms. Difficulty in breathing. Rise in blood pressure.
Limit of tolerability.

30-50

seconds

50 to a
few hundred

Physiological effects on humans

Heart irregularities. Rise in blood pressure. Powerful cramp-effect. to minutes

Unconsciousness. Ventricular fibrillation if long shock at upper limit of range.

less than
No ventricular fibrillation. Heavy shock.
cardiac cycle
above one
Ventricular fibrillation. Beginning of electrocution in relation to heart phase not
cardiac cycle important. (Disturbance of stimulus conducting system?) Unconsciousness.
Current marks.
less than

Above
few hundred

Ventricular fibrillation. Beginning of electrocution in relation to heart phase

cardiac cycle Important Initiation of fibrillation only in the sensitive phase.

(Direct stimulatory effect on heart muscle?) Unconsciousness. Current marks
over one
Reversible cardiac arrest. Range of electrical defibrillation. Unconsciousness.
cardiac cycle Current marks. Burns

Body Current / Time and Security

10,000

Time 1,000
(mS)

Threshold
of
Threshold Let Go
of
Perception

Threshold
of
Fibrillation

IEC Security
Curve
100

Let Go
Hold On

10
0.1

1.0

10
Current (mA)

100

1000

Earthing Impedance Affects Touch & Step

Potentials
E

!
Step
VH

Touch

RE

VH

Surface

True
Earth

RF
IF

RG

Dont forget
communications
cables etc.
entering S/S !
IF

IF
VH E

RG '
RE RF RG '

True Earth

RG

R ' = f(Distance)

Interconnected Star (Zig-Zag) Earthing

Transformer
Single Earthing Resistor
I
I
2I

3I
3I

Transformer Insulated
for Line Voltage

2I

I
I

Earth
Fault

3I
I

Resistor Insulated
For System Phase
Voltage

Interconnected Star Earthing Transformer

Three Earthing Resistors
I
I
2I

3I
Earth
Fault

3I

Resistors

I
I

I
2I

Note:- Resistors to
be insulated for line
voltage and to have 3
times the ohmic value
of a single neutral
resistor

3I
I

3I

Displacement of Neutral from

Earth during an Earth Fault
Z
Va

IF

N
Vc

Vb

Z
Z

ZE
Va
G

VGN F ZE VaN .

ZE
ZE Z

Vc

Vb

Earth Fault on System with Insulated Earth

Va

N
Vc

Vab
- jXc

Ib

Vb

Vac
- jXc

Ic
IF

-jXc

Vab
- jXc

Vac
- jXc

-jXc

-jXc

Earth Fault on System with Resonant or

Petersen Coil Earthing
Va

- b

Vc

Vab
- jXc
Vb

VaN
jXL

IF

Vab
- jXc

Vac
- jXc

-jXc

-jXc

-jXL
-jXc

a, G

a, G
a,G

Methods of Neutral Earthing (1)

Aspect

Solid
reactance

Normal
insulation

Suitable for
Suitable for
phase voltage phase voltage
continuously
continuously
for long periods
insulation must
be suitable for
line voltage

Resistance
reactor

Over voltages:
(a) Initiated by
Not excessive Not excessive
faults,
ding all three phases
switching, etc are made or broken
uence networks
(b) Travelling
waves

Negative
reflection
reflection at
neutral

In general,
negative

Protection:
(a) Automatic
No difficulty
No difficulty
segregation normal methods normal methods
of faulty zone can be used
can be used
involved
torily
(b) Travelling
waves

Diverters rated
for phase volts
are suitable
are essential

In general,
diverters rated
for line voltage
essential

Resistance &
reactor

High value
reactor

Low value

Tuned

Insulated

Suitable for phase

voltage
continuously

Suitable for
line voltage for
long periods

Suitable for
phase voltage
continuously

If used for
operation with
one line earthed

Suitable for line

voltage for long

Not excessive provie.g. neutral

inversion

Can be very high Not excessive

no mutual coup- can give very
ling between zero high voltages

Not excessive if

Arcing ground

simultaneously

& positive seq-

Full reflection at
neutral

Full reflection at
neutral

Full reflection at
at neutral

Full reflection

neutral

No difficulty, normal
methods can be
used

Extremely difficult if more than

one zone

No difficulty
normal methods
can be used

By using special Extremely

technique can be difficult
done satisfac-

In general, diverters
rated for line volts
are essential

Diverters rated
for line volts are
essential

In general,
diverters rated for
line volts are

Diverter rated
for line volts are
essential

Diverters rated
for line volts
are essential

Methods of Neutral Earthing (2)

Aspect

Solid
reactance

Resistance
reactor

Resistance &
reactor

High value
reactor

Low value

Tuned

Insulated

Highest value
small may be
self exting-

High value

High value

Negligible

High value

Negligible

Capacitive if

(b) Duration

Few seconds
continuous,
depending on
method of
application

Few seconds
time

Few seconds

Long time

Few seconds

Few seconds or

In general long

(c) Effect on
communication circuits

Electromagnetic Electromagnetic
interference
interference
may necessidepending on
tate current
degree of
limitation
limitation
ular consideration

Electromagnetic
interference
depending on
degree of limitation
requires partic-

Electrostatic
Electromagnetic
interference
interference may
necessitate current
limitation
line earthed

If used for
running continuously with one

Electrostatic
interference

Harmonic
currents in
neutral

No limitation
of harmonic
currents

Earth-fault
Current
(a) Value

uished

Partial limitations Partial limitation of

of harmonic
harmonic currents
currents
currents

Limits all
harmonic
currents

Appreciably limits
all harmonic
currents

Appreciably limits
all harmonic

Time rating of
30 sec.
neutral apparatus continuous

30 sec.

Continuous

30 sec.

30 sec. or

General remarks

In general use
In general use where
a source neutral is to protection of
not available
generator on
personnel
general to be
avoided

Confined mainly
resistor at very
high voltages

Cheaper than
of supply. Can
be a danger to

Best continuity
tions on short
feeders, in

Maximum
disturbance to
system
generator transformer unit

30 sec.

Some applica-