Airfoils

CLASS 7 8

Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

KuttaJoukowski theorem
The KuttaJoukowski theorem is a
fundamental theorem of aerodynamics.

It is named after the German Martin

Wilhelm Kutta and the Russian Nikolai
Zhukovsky who first developed its key ideas
in the early 20th century.

The theorem relates the lift generated

by a right cylinder to the speed of the
cylinder through the fluid, the density of the
fluid, and the circulation.

KuttaJoukowski
theorem
Kutta in Germany and Joukowski in Russia,
worked to quantify the lift achieved by an
airflow over a spinning cylinder. The lift
relationship is
Lift per unit length:

L = GV

Where

- is the air density,

V - is the velocity of flow, and
G - is called the "vortex strength".

KuttaJoukowski
theorem
The vortex strength is given by
G = 2r2
where

- is the angular velocity of spin of the

cylinder.

KuttaJoukowski
theorem
Like all aerodynamic lift, this seems a
bit mysterious, but it can be looked at
in terms of a redirection of the air
motion. If the cylinder traps some air
in a boundary layer at the cylinder
surface and carries it around with it,
shedding it downward, then it has
given some of the air a downward
momentum.

KuttaJoukowski
theorem
That can act to give the cylinder an
upward momentum in accordance with
the principle of
conservation of momentum. Another
approach is to say that you have
exerted a downward component of
force on the air and by
Newton's 3rd law there must be an
upward force on the cylinder.

KuttaJoukowski
theorem
Yet another approach is to say that
the top of the cylinder is assisting
the airstream, speeding up the flow
on the top of the cylinder. Then by
the Bernoulli equation, the pressure
on the top of the cylinder is
diminished, giving an effective lift.

Form Drag
VERY TURBULENT WAKE
REDUCTION IN FORM DRAG
50%

85%

90 - 95%

2D Airfoil Aerodynamics

Lift is mainly provided by

the wing with an airfoil
cross-section shape

HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?

Lift due to imbalance of pressure distribution over top
and bottom surfaces of airfoil (or wing)
If pressure on top is lower than pressure on bottom surface, lift
is generated
Why is pressure lower on top surface?

We can understand answer from basic physics:

Continuity (Mass Conservation)
Newtons 2nd law (Euler or Bernoulli Equation)
Lift = PA

HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?

1. Flow velocity over top of airfoil is faster than over bottom
surface
Streamtube A senses upper portion of airfoil as an obstruction
Streamtube A is squashed to smaller cross-sectional area
Mass continuity AV=constant: IF A THEN V

Streamtube A is squashed
most in nose region
(ahead of maximum thickness)

A
B

HOW DOES AN AIRFOIL GENERATE LIFT?

2. As V p
1
p V 2 constant
Incompressible: Bernoullis Equation2
Compressible: Eulers Equation dp VdV
Called Bernoulli Effect
3. With lower pressure over upper surface and higher
pressure over bottom surface, airfoil feels a net force in
upward
direction
Most
of lift is
produced Lift
in first 20-30% of wing
(just downstream of leading edge)

WHAT CREATES AERODYNAMIC FORCES?

Aerodynamic forces exerted by airflow
comes from only two sources:
1.Pressure, p, distribution on surface

Acts normal to surface

2.Shear stress, w, (friction) on surface

Acts tangentially to surface

Pressure and shear are in units of force per

unit area (N/m2)
Net unbalance creates an aerodynamic
force

 Introduction
In this chapter the following will be studied:
1- Geometric characteristics of the airfoils.
2- Aerodynamic characteristics of the airfoils.
3- Flow similarity ( Dynamic similarity )
Airfoil Geometric Characteristics

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Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

17

Airfoil Geometry
An airfoil is the 2D crosssection shape of the wing,
which creates sufficient lift
with minimal drag

Airfoil geometric characteristics include:

1- Mean camber line : The locus (the specific location) of
points halfway between the upper and lower surfaces
as measured perpendicular to the mean camber line.
2- Leading & trailing edges: The most forward and
rearward points of the mean camber line.
3- Chord line: The straight line connecting the leading and
trailing edges.
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Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

4- Chord C : The distance from the leading to trailing

edge measured along the chord line.
5- Camber : The maximum distance between the mean
camber line and the chord line.
6- Leading edge radius and its shape through the
leading edge.
7- The thickness distribution: The distance from the
upper surface to the lower surface, measured
perpendicular to chord line

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Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

Types of Airfoils

Symmetrical

Equal chamber on each side

Each half mirror image of other
Mean chamber line and chord line are coincidental
Produces zero lift at zero angle of attack
Constant center of pressure with varying angles of
attack

Nonsymmetrical

Greater curvature above the chord line then below

Chord and chamber line are not coincidental
Produces useful lift even at negative angles of attack
Produces more lift at a given angle of attack than
symmetrical
Better stall characteristics than symmetrical
Good lift to drag ratio
Limited to low relative wind velocity, <300 knots
Excessive center of pressure travel up to 20% of chord
line

Airfoil

Equal amounts of thickness is added to camber

.in a direction normal to the camber line

Camber Line

Chord Line

Angle of Attack

V
Angle of attack is defined as the angle between the free stream
.and the chord line. It is given the symbol (
Because modern wings have a built-in twist distribution, the
.angle of attack will change from root to tip
.The root will, in general, have a high angle of attack
.The tip will, in general, have a low (or even a negative)

Lift and Drag Forces acting on a

Wing Section
Sectional Lift, L
Sectional Drag, D
V
, The component of aerodynamic forces normal to the freestream
per unit length of span (e.g. per foot of wing span), is called
.the sectional lift force, and is given the symbol L
, The component of aerodynamic forces along the freestream
per unit length of span (e.g. per foot of wing span), is called
.the sectional drag force, and is given the symbol D

Sectional Lift and Drag Coefficients

The sectional lift coefficient Cl is defined
L
:as
C
l

1
V2 c
2

Here (c) is the airfoil chord, i.e. distance

between the leading edge and trailing
.edge, measured along the chordline
The sectional drag force coefficient C d is
:likewise defined as
D
Cd

1
V2 c
2

2D Airfoil Aerodynamics

Lift is mainly provided by

the wing with an airfoil
cross-section shape

Lift & Drag Coefficients

l
cl 1
2
V S
2
d
cd 1
2
V S
2

lift

normal force

drag

chordwise
force

.?Why use Cl, Cp etc

Why do we use abstract quantities such as
?Cl and Cp
Why not directly use physically meaning full
quantities such as Lift force, lift per unit
.?span , pressure etc

The Importance of Non-Dimensional

Forms

.Consider two geometrically similar airfoils

.One is small, used in a wind tunnel
.The other is large, used on an actual wing
.These will operate in different environments - density, velocity
This is because high altitude conditions are not easily reproduce
.in wind tunnels
.They will therefore have different Lift forces and pressure fields
They will have identical Cl , Cd and Cp
if they are geometrically alikeoperate at identical angle of attack, Mach number and Reynolds number

The Importance of Non-Dimensional

Forms

, In other words
,a small airfoil , tested in a wind tunnel
and a large airfoil, used on an actual wing
will have identical non-dimensional coefficients Cl , Cd and
if they are geometrically alikeoperate at identical angle of attack, Mach number.and Reynolds number
This allows designers (and engineers) to build and test
,small scale models, and extrapolate qualitative features
but also quantitative information, from a small scale model
.to a full size configuration

Once Cl, Cd etc. are found, they can be

plotted for use in all applications - model
aircraft or full size aircraft

Characteristics of Cl vs.
Stall
Cl
.Slope= 2 if is in radians
Angle of
zero lift

= 0

Angle of Attack, in degrees

or radians

The angle of zero lift depends on

the camber of the airfoil
Cambered airfoil
Cl

Angle of
zero lift

= 0

Symmetric Airfoil

Angle of Attack, in degrees

or radians

Drag is caused by
Skin Friction - the air molecules try to drag the airfoil
.with them. This effect is due to viscosity
Form Drag - The flow separates near the trailing edge,
due to the shape of the body. This causes low
pressures near the trailing edge compared to the
leading edge. The pressure forces push the airfoil
. back
Wave Drag: Shock waves form over the airfoil,
converting momentum of the flow into heat. The
.resulting rate of change of momentum causes drag

DRAG FORCES
d

Same total drag as airfoil

Viscous Boundary Layer

Velocity profile creates skin friction (shear) drag on surface

Edge of boundary layer

Transition

Separation

Note messy or
turbulent flow
pattern
High drag
Lower fuel efficiency

Spoiler angle increased

by + 5
Flow behavior more
closely resembles a
laminar flow
Tremendous savings (>
$10,000/yr) on
Miami-NYC route

Historical Airfoils

Evolution of
Airfoil Design

Laminar boundary
layer creates less skin
friction drag

Airfoil Families (Series)

# NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics) or
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space administration)
identified different airfoil shapes with a logical numbering
system.
# Abbott & Von Doenhoff Theory of Wing Sections
includes a summary of airfoil data ( geometric and
aerodynamic data )

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Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

NACA

Airfoil Series

1- NACA 4-digit series

2- NACA 5-digit series
3- NACA 1-series or 16-series
4- NACA 6- series
5- NACA 7- series
6- NACA 8- series
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Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

NACA Four-Digit Series

Example:
NACA 2412
NACA 2 4
Camber in
percentage of chord
yc = 0.02 C

Position of camber
in tenths of chord
xc = 0.4 C

xc
42

12

yc

Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

Maximum thickness (t )
in percentage of chord
(t/c)max = 0.12

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Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

NACA Five-Digit Series

Example:
NACA 23012
NACA 2
When multiplied by 3/2
yields the design lift
coefficient Cl in tenths.
Cl = 0.3

44

30

12

When divided by 2, gives

the position of the
camber in percent of
chord xc = 0.15 C

Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

Maximum thickness
(t ) in percentage of
chord (t/c)max = 0.12

NACA Six- Series

Example:
NACA 64-212
NACA 6 4 - 2
Series
designation 6

12

Location of minimum
pressure in tenths of
chord (0.4 C)
Design lift
coefficient in
tenths (0.2)

45

Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

Maximum thickness (t )
in percentage of chord
(t/c)max = 0.12

 The Handbook Theory of Wing Sections gives the

shape of airfoils in terms of upper and lower surfaces
station and ordinate as given in the following Tables.
Airfoils can be drawn using these Tables.
From airfoil drawing we can extract its geometric data:
- camber line
- maximum camber ratio and its position
- maximum thickness ratio and its position
-leading edge radius
-trailing edge angle

46

 Tabe for NACA 2410, 2412, 2415

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Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

Resultant Aerodynamic Force

Lift

Total Aerodynamic Force

(Sum of Pressure and Shear)

V
Drag

Center of Pressure and Aerodynamic Center

# Center of pressure : The point of intersection between

the chord line and the line of action of the resultant
aerodynamic force R.

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Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

Center of Pressure
The resultant aerodynamic force acts at the Center of
.Pressure (c.p.), about which the moment is zero

Typical
Streamlines

Angle of Attack

Pressure Coefficient Distribution

p p
cp 1
2
V
2
:In free-stream

c p

: At stagnation point (V=0)

p p
1
0
2
V
2
1
2
1
2

p0 p
c p0 1

1
2
2
V
V
2

Positive Cp means the pressure is higher than the freestream (atmospheric) pressure, and negative Cp means
suction relative to free-stream pressure. The maximum,
. which occurs at the stagnation point, is always 1

Viscous Boundary Layer

Velocity profile creates skin friction (shear) drag on surface

Edge of boundary layer

Transition

Separation

Boundary Layer Flow Separation

, When flow separation occurs

.there is also pressure drag

# In addition to lift and drag, the surface pressure and

shear stress distribution create a moment M which tends
to rotate the wing.
# Moment

55

on Airfoil

 Neglect shear stress

F1 is the resultant pressure force on the upper surface.
F2 is the resultant pressure force on the lower surface.
Points 1 & 2 are the points of action of F 1 & F2 .
R is resultant force of F1 & F2 .
F1 F2 because the pressure distribution on the upper
surface differs from the pressure distribution on the lower
surface.
Thus, F1 & F2 will create an aerodynamic moment M
which will tend to rotate the airfoil.
The value of M depends on the point about which we
choose to take moment.
For subsonic airfoils it is common to take moments about
the quarter-chord point. It is denoted by Mc/4 .
56

Mc/4 is function of angle of attack , i.e. its value depends

on .
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Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

 Aerodynamic Center

Aerodynamic center: The point on the chord line about

which moments does not vary with .
The moment about the aerodynamic center (ac) is
designated Mac .
By definition,
Mac = constant
For low-speed and subsonic airfoils, AC is generally very
close to the quarter-chord point
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Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

Aerodynamic Center
Since the c.p. varies with , it is more desirable to use a
fixed Aerodynamic Center (a.c.) as the point of action of
the lift and drag. The pitching moment about this point
can be calculated, and is found insensitive to . For most
.airfoils, the a.c. locates at around quarter chord (x=c/4)
Pitching
Moment
:Coefficient
cm

m
1
2

V
Sc
2

Lift, Drag, and Moment Coefficients

60

For an airplane in flight, L, D, and M depend on:

1- Angle of attack
2- Free-stream velocity V
3- Free-stream density , that is, altitude
4- Viscosity coefficient
5- Compressibility of the airflow which is
governed by Mach number M = V/a.
6- Size of the aerodynamic surface. For airplane
we use the plan form wing area S to indicate
size.
7- Shape of the airfoil
Dr. Shehret Tilvaldyev

Computation Fluid Dynamics Simulation

CFD Simulation: Near stall

CFD Simulation: Fully Stalled