Gender Issues

Varying perspectives on what

it means to be a male or
female

Big Confusing Questions

What does it mean to be a male or

female in our society?
Are the behavioral preferences of
males and females based on biology
or culture?
Do our societys attitudes and
expectations hurt or help our sexual
relations?

Definitions

SEX biological maleness or

femaleness
genetic determined by
chromosomes
anatomical obvious physical
differences
between males and
females

Gender psychological aspects of

maleness or femaleness

Gender Identity the subjective

sense of being either male or female

What sex you think you are, or really

should be.

Gender Role attitudes and

behaviors considered appropriate in
a specific culture for people of a
particular sex
Expectations we should fulfill
Masculine or Feminine
Vary widely from culture to culture
but rapidly evolving

Forming a Gender Identity

Does it simply flow from anatomy?

For some of us, its not always that easy

For all of us, it all starts in our mothers

womb, at the instant of conception, as
prenatally we begin the tortuous path of
sexual differentiation.

Chromosomal Influences

We receive 23 chromosomes from

each parent.
Of these, 22 pairs are identical in
structure.
The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes,
determines whether we are
genetically male or female.

More Chromosomes

If we receive an X from both parents, we

will be female (XX).
A y from our father, and we are male
(Xy).
One gene on the y (SRY) leads to testes
development.
Perhaps one gene on X (DSS) leads to the
development of female characteristics. If
so, we are not inherently female.

The Gonadal Stage

Males and females have identical

gonads (reproductive organs) until
about 6 weeks after conception when
SRY or DSS spur their development
Once the testes or ovaries become
functional their release of hormones
controls further differentiation

The Crucial Role of

Hormones

The gonads release the sex

hormones into the blood stream
Ovaries produce:
1) estrogen a hormone which
develops female sexual
characteristics and regulates
menstruation, as do
2) progestational compounds

Testes release androgens which

promote the development of male
genitals and secondary sexual
characteristics
Another hormone released by the
testes, testosterone, also promotes
sexual motivation
Both males and females produce the
sex hormones typically associated with
the other (testosterone and estrogen)
but in much smaller quantities

Internal reproductive
structures - males

At about 8 weeks after conception:

Males androgens stimulate the
woffian ducts to develop into the
plumbing which will allow semen
creation and transmission
another hormone causes
the mullerian duct system to vanish

Female reproductive
organs

Without the influence of

androgen, mullerian ducts
develop into female structures
and the woffian duct system
fades into nothingness

External reproductive
structures

A product of testosterone DHT

causes portions of the
undifferentiated sex organs to fuse
and form the scrotum and penis
Without DHT this fusion does not take
place and the clitoris, labia minora,
and labia majora form
By the 12th week, its all done and our
sex is apparent

Brain Differentiation

For males, in the Hypothalamus,

testosterone exposure leads to
insensitivity to the effects of estrogen,
preventing the establishment of the
menstrual cycle at puberty
Also, some of its regions are much
larger in heterosexual males than females

The Cerebral Cortex

Are differences between the sexes on

verbal and spatial cognitive skills
caused by differences in their cerebral
cortexes?
Men appear to often rely on just one
hemisphere.
Women have a thicker corpus
callosum facilitating the use of both
hemispheres

But theres more

Are there other reasons why men

perform better on spatial tasks while
women shine in verbal measures?

The power of Expectations

Recent research highlights the

importance of psychosocial, not
biological, influences.
Social Expectations girls do just as
well as boys initially in science and
math, but falter in high school.
Where they discouraged ?
Changing Expectations by the late
90s, the gap had largely vanished.

Atypical Differentiation

How, and why, do things go awry?

Hermaphrodites/Intersexed
people who possess biological
attributes of both sexes
Very few have both ovaries and testes,
most have ambiguous anatomy but
their gonads match their
chromosomes and they are called
pseudo hermaphrodites

Problems at the
Chromosomal Level

Turners Syndrome
Just one sex chromosome X
Left with 45 rather than 46
Normal external female genitals but
little or no evidence of ovaries/hormones
Despite that, feminine in interests and
behavior
1 of 2000 births

Faulty Chromosomes cont.

Klinefelters Syndrome
XXy occurs in 1 of 500 births
Anatomically male
Presence of extra X stops development
of male structures, resulting in sterility
No interest in sex, no testosterone
Tall, rounded, feminine, but content
as males

Androgen Insensitivity
Syndrome

An otherwise normal male,

unaffected by prenatal exposure to
androgen
Results in female genitals, including
a shallow, but nonfunctional vagina
Raised as girls, they assume a
female gender identity and thrive
as females

Fetally Androgenized
Females

Chromosomally normal females

exposed to excessive androgens
At birth genitals appear to be male
Corrected by minor surgery, most
still reject a female gender identity
with some assuming a male gender
identity and behavior

DHT-Lacking Males

Males who cannot produce crucial

DHT
Result female appearing external
genitals, at least initially
Typically raised as girls, they suddenly
sprout into males at puberty
In one study, 16 of 18 cast off their
female gender identity and happily
assumed male sex roles

The Puzzle of Gender

Identity

Why do we think we belong to one

sex, even though our anatomy tells
us differently?

Evidence, both cross-cultural, and

otherwise, points to the importance
of social-learning forces.

Social-Learning Influences

Familial expectations (blue room vs.

pink room) start before birth
Familial perceptions/interpretations
vary
Familial responses vary similarly
By 3, most of us have a firm gender
identity, and reinforcement momentum
builds as kids mimic same-sex parent

Cross-Cultural Evidence

Margaret Meads ground-breaking

studies
In Mundugumor, both sexes are
aggressive, insensitive Masculine ?
In Arapesh, both sexes are nurturing
and gentle Feminine?
In Tchambuli, we find a reversal of our
customary sex roles
Therefore, its more culture than biology

Are We Sexually Neutral at

Birth?

In the 1960s, Dr. John Money at John

Hopkins thought so
Intersexed infants were surgically
fixed to have female genitals,
regardless of their chromosomal sex
Its easier to make a functional vagina
than a penis
Initially, this approach seemed to work

Chromosomes Win Out

As these individuals matured, some of

the children assigned a sex at odds with
their chromosomes rejected their
expected gender identity
The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl
Since the social learning model
obviously has its limits, now even John
Money endorses an interactional model

Transsexualism &
Transgenderism

Transsexual (TS) someone whose

gender identity is opposite to their
biological sex

TSs feel that their biological sex is

mistaken. Many seek sexreassignment, many do not.

Transgendered (TG) people whose

appearance and/or behaviors do not
match traditional gender roles.

TGs behave in a way that flouts

societys expectations. Often, they
cross-dress.

TGs do not seek sexual reassignment

surgery.

Gender Dysphoria

Some, but not all, of TSs and

TGs experience gender
dysphoria unhappiness with
their biological sex or expected
sex role.

Gender Identity/Orientation

Sexual Orientation the sex we are

emotionally and physically attracted to
Gender Identity the sex we believe
we belong to, even despite biology
Most TSs are attracted/oriented to those
who share (pre-surgery) their anatomy
But some male to female TSs prefer
females

Gender-Identity Disorder

According to DSM IV TR, to fit the GenderIdentity Disorder tag, individuals must:
1) have pervasive cross-gender beliefs,
2) dysphoria
3) lack a physical intersex condition, &
4) show great distress and problems
functioning in society and at work

Transsexuals: Why?

Most have no problems with

chromosomes or anatomy
90% lack any hint of mental illness
While at first 75% were male, this
gap has narrowed
Most develop their desire to change
sexes in childhood
Dating!

Fine, But Why?

We still dont know, two theories exist.

Hormonal prenatal exposure to
inappropriate levels alters brain
differentiation But most are normal.
Social Learning children are
conditioned to behave in a manner
consistent with the other sex and
reinforced for mimicking other sex
parent.

OK(?) What Do We Do?

Perhaps psychotherapy can alleviate

the need for reassignment surgery.
But often it cant, leaving no choice
but:

SEX-REASSIGNMENT SURGERY

PROTOCOL

1) Interviews

2) Living the life for a year or

longer

3) Hormone therapy reverse

secondary sexual characteristics,
and, finally,

The Surgery

Works better for male to female

switch
Penis tissue becomes the vagina
Some can even experience arousal
and orgasm
Additional surgery can change the
pitch of their voice

Female to Male

Breasts, uterus, ovaries removed

Vagina sealed, penis constructed
but no erection from sexual arousal
Does it work?
Most report a significant increase in
their overall adjustment to life

Cultural Gender Roles

Men assertive, logical, competitive,

competent
Women submissive, warm,
nurturing, emotional
Most psychologists argue that our
gender roles arise from socialization
our learning histories, through which
we accept our societys expectations
for our behavior

The Socialization of Sex

Roles
Who and what shapes our assumed sex
roles?
Parents often have differing
expectations for, and treatment of, boys
and girls
Encourage or discourage certain toys
gender appropriate play
But today sports are pushed for both

Other Socializing
Forces

Peers
Voluntarily segregation, even in pre-school
Reinforces sex-typing in play
Influence even increases in adolescence
Otherwise face social ridicule
Often produces stereotyping

Schools & Textbooks

From the 70s to the early 90s, girls
and boys were treated quite differently
Boys were encouraged to be assertive,
received more tolerance when bad,
more attention, help and praise
Girls praised for neatness not
substance, encouraged to be
dependent and to avoid math and
sciences
Recently, these attitudes have shifted

Television
Also perpetuates gender stereotypes
Women are both underrepresented
and presented stereotypically
Hope springs from The Wild
Thornberrys, Alias, and Judging Amy
Marketing concerns should push this
positive trend since women both
watch and buy more

Religion
Promotes males as superior God,
Pope, Bishop, Priest, etc.
Women portrayed as Eve, Virgin Mary
Encouraged to model roles such as
educators, nurses, charity workers
Recently, many denominations have
ordained women ministers and moved
to eliminate masculine metaphors for
God

Gender-Role Assumptions

Women as undersexed, mean as over

women have been told that they
should not desire or enjoy sex
men should pursue every chance
unfairly limits both

More Assumptions

Men initiate, women respond

Men approach, ask out, pick up,
make the move
Women respond with submission or
rejection
Causes men to feel pressure and
anxiety
Women may wish to initiate but feel
pressure

Finally

Men as unemotional
Women as nurturing

Do these assumptions still prevail?