CHAPTER 7

SOIL FORMATION
CONTENTS OF THIS CHAPTER

 Definition and Terminology in Soils

 Application of Soils in Civil Engineering
 Origin and Composition of Soils
 Formation of Soil and Major Soil Types
 Basic Properties of Soil
 Determination of Specific Gravity of Soil Particles
 Determination of Porosity and Void Ratio
DEFINITIONS AND TERMS
Soil

‘Soil is a natural body comprised of solids

(minerals and organic matter), liquid, and gases
that occurs on the land surface, occupies space,
and is characterised by one or both of the
following: horizons, or layers, that are
distinguishable from the initial material as a
result of additions, losses, transfers, and
transformations of energy and matter or the
ability to support rooted plants in a natural
environment.’

Agriculturalists’ point of view.

(USDA, 2004)
‘Soil is considered as a naturally (mostly) occurring
particulate material of variable composition having
properties of compressibility, permeability and
strength.’

Engineers’ point of view.

(Whitlow, 2001)

‘Soil comprises of layers of loose unconsolidated

material extending from the surface to solid rock,
which have been formed by the weathering and
disintegration of the rocks.’

Geologists’ point of view

(Whitlow, 2001)
Soil Mechanics

Soil mechanics is the branch of science that deals

with the study of the physical properties of soil and
the behaviour of soil masses subjected to various
types of forces (Das, 1997).

Soil Engineering

Soil engineering is the application of the principles of

soil mechanics to practical problems (Das, 1997).
The publication of ‘erdbaumechanik’ by Karl Terzaghi
(1925) ‘father of soil mechanics’ gave birth to
modern soil mechanics which include fundamental
principles of soil mechanics on which advance studies
are made.
GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

Geotechnical engineering is defined as the

subdiscipline of civil engineering that involves
natural materials found close to the surface of the
earth with the inclusion of principles of soil
mechanics and rock mechanics applications for
the design of foundations, retaining structures
and earth structures (Das, 1997).
Application of Soil Mechanics

Geotechnical engineering is a branch of civil engineering

and is closely related to engineering geology which is a
branch of geology. The discipline that relates
geotechnical engineering principles with engineering
geology principles is geotechnics. Some of the
applications of geotechnics include:

i) Shallow foundation of structures such as bridges,

buildings, highways and road embankments.
ii) Deep foundations of structures such as piled high rise
buildings, structures on difficult ground conditions,
tunnelling and excavation.
iii)Ground improvement of difficult soil conditions such as
geotextiles, stabilisation using chemicals, dewatering,
vibrocompaction etc.
iv)Retaining structures and slopes such as reinforced earth
wall, retaining walls, cofferdams etc.
Geotechnics is a Discipline Related to Geotechnical
Engineering and Engineering Geology

Water Resource
Engineering

Environmental Construction
Engineering Engineering

CIVIL
ENGINEERING
Geomorphology
Surveying and
Mapping
Geotechnical
Engineering
Paleontology Transportation
Engineering Engineering
Geology
GEOLOGY Structural
Engineering
Petrology

Geophysics and
Seismology
Economic
Geology
 Some Application of Soil Mechanics
Bridge Foundation Road
Cofferdam
Embankment

Geotextiles

Dynamic Compaction
Tunnelling

Grout
Curtain Excavation

Embankment Dam
Reinforced Earth Wall
Shallow Foundation
ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF SOIL
 Soils are formed by the disintegration (technically
known as weathering) of rocks.
 The disintegrated or weathered materials are
either found deposited at its original location or
transported by weathering agents such as water,
wind, ice, etc. before deposition.
 In the first case, the resultant soil is known as
residual soil whereas the second case is known
as transported soil.
 Three stages involved in the formation transported
soil is described as:
i) weathering
ii) transportation
iii) deposition of weathered materials
Weathering

 Weathering is the process of breaking down rocks

by mechanical and chemical processes into small
pieces. Weathering is divided into two distinct
processes:

i) Mechanical Weathering

Mechanical weathering may be caused by the

expansion and contraction of rocks from continuous
gain and loss of heat, which results in ultimate
disintegration. Frequently, water seeps through the
pores and existing cracks in rocks and as the
temperature drops, the water freezes and expands
causing the expansion of volume strong enough to
break down larger rocks.
ii) Chemical Weathering

The original rock minerals are transformed into

new minerals by chemical reaction is known as
chemical weathering. Water and carbon dioxides
from the atmosphere form carbonic acid, which
reacts with the existing rock minerals to form
new minerals and soluble salt. Soluble salts
present in the groundwater and organic acids
formed from decayed organic matter also cause
chemical weathering.
 The product of soils formed from the weathering
process at its origin is known to be residual soil.
 On the contrary, the transported soil can be
classified into several groups, depending on the
mode of transportation and deposition:
i) Glacial soils - formed by transportation
and deposition of glaciers.
ii) Alluvial soils - transported by running
water and deposited
along streams.
iii) Lacustrine soils - formed by deposition in
quiet lakes.
iv) Marine soils - formed by deposition in the
seas.
v) Aeolian soils - transposted and deposited
by wind.
vi) Colluvial soils - formed by movement of
soil from its original place
by gravity such as during
landslides.
 FORMATION OF SOIL AND SOIL
PROFILE
 Soil consists of:
i) minerals and weathered rock fragments
ii) organic matter
iii) gases
iv) water
v) living organisms
 Regolith is minerals and weathered rock fragments
 Humus is decayed organic matter.
 There are five factors that influence soil formation:

i) Climate
ii) Parent rock
iii) Organisms
iv) Relief (slope, topography)
v) Time
 A soil profile consists of several soil
horizons and they are numbered
roughly alphabetically, beginning at the
ground surface, going downwards:
i) O horizon
– This is the layer of humus on the
ground surface.
ii) A horizon
– Top soil.
– Rich in organic matter and typically
dark in color.
– Also called zone of leaching.
iii) B horizon
– Subsoil.
– Also called zone of accumulation.
– May contain soluble minerals such
as calcite in arid climates (caliche).
iv) C horizon
– Weathered bedrock or saprolite
(rotten rock).
– Bedrock lies below the soil profile.
 MAJOR SOIL TYPES
i) Pedalfer
– These soils are rich in Al and Fe.
– They form in humid climates, such as the southeastern U.S.

ii) Pedocal
– These soils are rich in Calcium Carbonate.
– They form in arid climates, such as the southwestern U.S.
– These soils commonly contain caliche (or hardpan), a calcium
carbonate deposit which accumulates in the soil.

iii) Laterite

– These soils have been depleted of nearly all elements except iron and
aluminum oxides.
– Laterites are derived from the weathering of basalt (mafic parent
rock).
– They form in tropical climates (hot and wet) with very high rainfall.
– The high rainfall has caused leaching of most of the elements and
nutrients from the soil.
– This is the soil typical of a tropical rainforest. When used for
agriculture, the small amount of nutrients is quickly depleted, and
the soil dries to become as hard as a brick.
Mineral Composition
 As a summary, soil can be classified
into two major groups given as:

I) Coarse Soils
Coarse soils are classified as having
particle sizes > 0.06 mm such as
SANDS and GRAVELS. The grains
will either be rounded or angular
and usually consist of fragments of
rock or jasper with iron oxide,
calcite and mica present. The
relatively equidimensional shape is a
function of the crystalline structure
of the minerals including the degree
of rounding depends upon the
amount of wear that have taken
place.
ii) Fine Soils

Fine soils are finer than 0.06 mm and

typically flaky in shape such as SILTS and
CLAYS. Very fine oxides, sulphides and
sometimes organic matter may be present.
The most important engineering context of
fine soils is the flakiness of the clay minerals
which give rise to very large surface areas.

 Organic matter originates from plant or

animal remains and the end product, known
as humus which is a complex mixture of
organic compound.
 Featured in topsoil occurring in the upper
layer of usually not more than 0.5 m
thickness.
 Peat are predominantly fibrous organic
material.
 Organic matter has undesirable properties
which are highly compressible and absorb
large amount of water that will change in
load or moisture content producing
considerable changes in volume.
 Large majority of soils Gas Air, water vapour

consist of mixtures of Liquid Water, dissolved

salt
inorganic mineral particles
together with some water Solid
Rock fragments,
and air and it is expedient Mineral grains,
Organic matter
to consider a soil as three
phase model composed of
solid, liquid. Three-Phase Diagram

 Water is a fundamental part of natural soil and in fact

has a great effect on engineering properties such as
compressibility, seepage and permeability.
 Water has no shear strength but relatively
incompressible, hence it transmits direct pressure
therefore drainage conditions in a soil mass are of great
significance when considering shear strength.
 Air is compressible and water vapour can freeze. Soil
may be considered to be perfectly dry or fully saturated
or in the condition somewhere between these two
extremes. In dry soil, water vapour is present while in a
fully saturated soil, 2 % of air voids may be present.
BASIC PROPERTIES OF SOIL
 The soil mass is quantified into three constituent
phase materials which are solid, liquid and gas.
 In a partially saturated state, the soil may consist
of these phase as shown below, however, in a
fully saturated state or fully dry state, the soil will
behave as a two phase system.
 In a fully saturated state, water will fill in the void
spaces in the soil mass whereas in fully dry state,
the void spaces will be filled with air.
mass volume
Ma =0 Air Va
Vv
Mw Water Vw

M V

Ms Solid Vs
Definition of Mass-Volume
Water Content (W) and Degree of Saturation (Sr)

 Moisture content is expressed as the ratio of mass of

water to the mass of solid and is given in percentage of
water content (%). The water content is given by:
Mass of water Mw
w= =
Mass of solid Ms

 Degree of saturation is expressed as the quantity of

water in the soil based on the fraction of the voids
volume and is given in percentage of saturation (%).
For a perfectly dry soil, Sr = 0 and for a fully saturated
soil, Sr = 1. The degree of saturation is given by:
Volume of water Vw
Sr = =
Volume of voids Vv
Air Voids Volume

 The volume of air voids is the part of voids volume not

occupied by water. The volume of air voids is a
percentage from the total volume of soil and is given
as:
Va = Volume of Voids – Volume of Water = Vv - Vw

Void Ratio and Porosity

 Void ratio is the volume which is not occupied by

solids and it may be occupied by water or air or by a
mixture of both. The void ratio is given by:
Volume of voids Vv Vw + V v
e= = =
Volume of solids Vs Vs
Density of Soil

 Density is referred to as the mass of solids per unit

volume of the soil which is the quantity of material
related to the amount of space it occupies given as
kg/m3. Several density relationship can be establish:

i) Dry Density
Mass of solid Ms
ρ dry = =
Total volume V

ii) Bulk Density

Total Mass M
ρ b = =
Total volume V
iii) Saturated Density

Saturated density is the bulk density of the soil when

it is fully saturated, Sr = 1.

iv) Submerged Density

Submerged density or effective density of a soil is the

notional effective mass per unit total volume , when
the soil is submerged. When a unit total volume of soil
is is submerged in water, the net mass of a unit
volume of soil is given by:
ρ ’=ρ sat. -ρ w
Solid Particle Density and Specific Gravity

 Solid particle density is defined as the ratio of the

mass of solids to the volume of solids given as kg/m3.
The expression is given by:
Mass of solid Ms
ρ s = =
Volume of solid Vs

 Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of solids to the

density of water expressed as:
Ms
Gs =
Vsρ w
Relationships of Mass-Volume
Mass Volume
Ma =0 Air Va = e(1 - sr)
e
Mw = wGsρ Water Vw = Sre = wGs
w

V=1+e

Ms = Gsρ w Solid Vs = 1

 Water content and degree of saturation are derived from

previous equation given as:
Sre
w =
Gs

wGs
Sr =
e
 The porosity is derived based on the total volume and
the volume of void in the soil expressed as:
e
n=
1+e
 Solid particle density derived from the above
relationship is given by:

ρ s=
Gsρ w
 The air voids volume is expressed as:

Va = e(1 – Sr)

 The air voids content is the ratio of the volume of air

voids to the total volume given as:
e – wGs
Av =
1+e
 The dry density and bulk density are derived from the
previous expression given as:
Gsρ w ρ s
ρ d = =
1+e 1+e

Gρ + Sreρ ρ +
ρ b= s w
=
w s
Sreρ w
1+e 1+e
 The saturated density is derived from the bulk density
when the soil is fully saturated given by:
Gsρ w + eρ w Gs + eρ
ρ sat = w
1+e 1+e
=
Unit Weights of Soil
Dry unit weight, γ dry = ρ dry g
Bulk unit weight, γ b = ρ bg
Saturated unit weight, γ sat = ρ sat g
Unit weight of water, γ w = ρ wg
Submerged unit weight, γ ' = γ sat – γ w

 The gravitational acceleration, g is taken as 9.81 m/s2.

The unit for the given unit weights is kN/m3.

Relative Density
 The actual void ratio of a soil lies somewhere between
the possible minimum and maximum values depending
on the state of compaction.
 In the case of sands and gravels, a good deal of
variation is attainable between two extremes and the
relationship between the void ratio values is termed as
density index or relative density given by:
 emax. – e
RD =
emax. – emin.
 From the definition of dry unit weight, the relationship
can be expressed in terms of maximum and minimum
possible dry unit weight given as:
γ -γ
RD = d d(min)
γ d(max)
γ d(max) –γ d(min) γ d

Relative Density (%) Description of

Compactness
0 – 15 Very Loose
15 – 50 Loose
50 – 70 Medium
70 – 85 Dense
85 – 100 Very Dense
DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC
GRAVITY OF SOIL PARTICLES
 Specific gravity of fine soils can be conducted using a 50 ml
density bottle whereas for coarse soils, a 500 ml or 1000 ml
container is used either an ordinary gas jar shown in Fig
4.1 or a special gas jar fitted with a conical screw top
known as a pyknometer shown in Fig 4.2.
 The soil is first dried and placed into the jar and weighed.
 The jar is then filled with de-aired water and agitated to
remove any air bubbles.
 Once it is carefully topping up with water, the jar is weighed
again.
 Finally, the jar is emptied and filled with de-aired water and
again weighed. The masses are indicated below to
determine specific gravity of the soil given as:
M1 = Mass of empty jar
M2 = Mass of jar including dry soil
M3 = Mass of jar, soil including water
M4 = Mass of jar including water only
 Mass of Soil M2 – M1
Gs = =
Mass of Water Displaced by Soil (M4 – M1) – (M3 – M2)
 Alternatively, another procedure can be
adopted where the empty jar and the
jar filled with water is weighed.
 A pre-weighed soil quantity is then
poured into the jar and stirred.
 The water is carefully filled into the jar
and weighed.
 The masses are indicated below to
determine the specific gravity of the Fig 4.1 Gas Jar
soil given as:
 M1 = Mass of empty jar
 Ms = Mass of soil
 M3 = Mass of jar, soil including water
 M4 = Mass of jar including water only
Ms
Gs =
M4 – M3 + Ms
Fig 4.2 Pyknometer
DETERMINATION OF POROSITY
AND VOID RATIO
 Porosity and void ratio of a granular soil can be
determined by filling a suitable mould or container with
water and adding the soil to fill the mould.
 The volume occupied by the soil particles may be
determined by comparing the masses of water in the
mould with the mould filled with soil and water.
 The minimum void ratio can be determined using a
standard compaction mould placed under water indicated
as M1.
 The soil is then compacted into three layers of equal
thickness with each thoroughly compacted using a
vibrating hammer.
 The collar of the mould is then removed and the mass of
mould including soil from its surface struck-off level and
water is determined indicated as M2.
 V indicates the volume of mould used in the laboratory
determination.
 ρ = M2 – M1
 Saturated density, sat

V
 Assuming the soil is fully saturated, sr = 1,
ρ sat(max) = Gs + emin
1 + emin

emin = Gsρ w -
ρ sat(max)
ρ sat(max) - ρ w
 The porosity is given by:
nmin = emin
1 + emin
 The maximum void ratio is determined by pouring the
soil quickly into the mould placed under water.
 The collar is then removed and the weighed of the
mould including soil at its struck off level with water is
weighed. The expression is given by:
emax = Gsρ w - ρ sat(min)
ρ sat(min) - ρ w

nmax = emax
1 + emax