Pressure

Another element of weather is

atmospheric pressure. This has little
significance in weather forecasting.
But a change in pressure is very
significant. A falling pressure
generally indicates that a storm is
approaching. When the pressure
rises, it indicates the approach or
continuation of fair weather.

Barometer
The instrument for measuring the atmospheric
pressure. PAGASA uses two kinds of barometers in
measuring atmospheric pressure the mercurial
and aneroid. A mercurial barometer is an
instrument in which pressure is determined by
balancing atmospheric pressure against the
weight of a column of mercury in an empty glass
tube. An aneroid barometer works on the principle
of having changing atmospheric pressure curve a
metallic surface, which, in turn, shifts a pointer
across a scale, graduated in units of pressure.

Humidity

Water vapor in the air is what clouds, fog,

rain, and snow are made from the amount
of moisture in the air is known as humidity.
Warn air can hold more moisture than cold
air can. The maximum amount of moisture
that the air of a specific temperature can
hold is known as its saturation value. The
amount of moisture in the air can readily
measure and express it in different ways.

Two generally used terms are 1.)

relative humidity 2.) dew point.
Relative humidity is the proportion of
water vapor actually in the air at a
given temperature as compared with
the maximum amount that the air at
a given temperature as compared
with the maximum amount that the
air could hold at that temperature.

It may vary from almost none

deserts to as much as 100% in thick
fog or rain. Dew point is the
temperature to which air must be
cooled to become saturated by the
water vapor already present in the
air.

Clouds

Clouds often signal an eminent

weather change. Rising cloud levels
indicate clearing weather, while
thickening and lowering clouds
signify precipitation. Clouds are
formed when water vapor is cooled
below the dew point and condensed
into tiny but visible droplets or ice
crystal.

Clouds come in all sizes and shapes,

and can form near the ground or high
in the atmosphere. Clouds are groups
of tiny water droplets or ice crystals
in the sky. They are associated with
different kinds of precipitation
dependent on the atmospheres
temperature.

In appearance, clouds may be thick or thin,

have well defined edges or be very diffuse,
appear hair-like, cellular, towering, or in
sheets, and be associated with fair weather
or precipitation. Most clouds owe their
existence to upward vertical motion of air;
hence, they are often associated with
weather producing phenomena, such as
fronts, troughs, and low-pressure systems.
However, topography can also help move air
upwards and produce clouds.

Cloud types are classified by height and

appearance. The shape depends on the
way the air moves around it. If air moves
horizontally, clouds form in layers.
However, equator and develop lower near
the poles. At any given time, cloud cover
about 50% of the earth. We would not have
rain, thunderstorms, rainbows, or snow
without clouds. The atmosphere would be
quite boring if the sky was always clear.

Cloud
Types

Clouds are divided into four main

groups. Each group depends on the
height of the clouds base above the
earths surface. The following table
provides information about each
group and the cloud classes
associated with them.

High Clouds
The high cloud group, which consists
of cirrus, cirrostratus, and
cirrocumulus clouds, is composed of
primarily ice crystals due to the cold
air in the upper troposphere. The
base of a high cloud above the
surface can be anywhere from 6000
18000m in the tropics to 3000
8000m in the Polar Regions.

Cirrus clouds are the most common of the high

cloud and are composed entirely of ice and
consist of long, thin, wispy streamers. They are
commonly known as mares tails because of
their appearance. The reason for the long tails is
the wind. In the upper troposphere, the wind
travels at very high speed from west to east (in
the Northern Hemisphere). And these winds are so
strong at these altitudes that they actually stretch
the crystalline structure of the cirrus cloud,
creating a tail. Cirrus clouds are usually white, and
they predict fair weather.

Cirrostratus clouds consist almost

entirely of ice crystals. They appear
as sheet like thin clouds that usually
cover the entire sky.

Cirrocumulus clouds are composed

primarily of ice crystals and they are
small rounded puffs that usually
appear in long rows. Cirrocumulus is
usually white, but sometimes it
appears gray. If these clouds cover a
lot of the sky, it is called a mackerel
sky because the sky looks like the
scales of a fish. Cirrocumulus is most
often seen during wintertime and
indicates fair, but cold weather.

Middle Clouds
The middle cloud group is composed
of altostratus and altocumulus
clouds. Middle clouds consist of ice
crystals and water droplets. The base
of a middle cloud above the surface
can be anywhere from 2000-8000m
in the tropics to 2000-4000m in the
Polar Regions.

Altostratus clouds consist of water and some

ice crystals. An altostratus cloud usually
covers the whole sky and has a gray or bluegray appearance. The sun or moon may shine
through an altostratus cloud, but will appear
watery. Altostratus cloud forms ahead of
storms with continuous rain or snow.
Occasionally, rain will fall from an altostratus
cloud. As it hits the ground, then this cloud
will be classified as a nimbostratus.

Altocumulus clouds are composed

primarily of liquid water and have a
thickness of 1 km. They appear as
grayish-white with one part of the
cloud darker than the other.
Altocumulus clouds usually form in
groups. Altocumulus clouds in view
on a warm humid morning indicate
thunderstorms by late afternoon.

How can we distinguish an

altocumulus cloud from a
stratocumulus cloud? By pointing
your hand toward the cloud and
when the cloud is about the size of
your thumbnail, then it is
altocumulus.

Low Clouds
The low cloud group consists of
stratus, stratocumulus, and
nimbostratus clouds. Low clouds
consist of water droplets. The base of
a low cloud is from the surface to
2000m.

Stratus clouds are composed of

water droplets with uniform gray in
color and almost cover the entire sky.
They usually look like a fog that
doesnt reach the ground.

Stratocumulus clouds, which consist

also of water droplets, are low,
lumpy, and gray. Most form in rows
with blue sky visible in between.
Precipitation rarely occurs with
stratocumulus clouds.

Nimbostratus clouds, with water

droplets, are dark gray with a ragged
base. They are associated with
continuous light rain or snow.

Clouds with Vertical Growth

Vertical growth clouds are cumulus
and cumulonimbus clouds. They span
all levels of the troposphere and can
even shoot into the stratosphere.
These clouds are formed by warm air
rising from the surface. Cumulus and
cumulonimbus clouds provide the
most interesting and severe weather
in our planet.

Cumulus clouds are puffy white or

light gray clouds that look like
floating cotton balls. They have sharp
outlines and a flat vase.

Cumulus clouds can be associated

with good or bad weather. Cumulus
humilis clouds generally show up
during warm summer day with fair
weather. These clouds have only
slight vertical growth and they are
detached with the lots of blue sky in
between.

Cumulonimbus clouds are

commonly known as thunderstorm
clouds. They can grow to such
heights that actually reach
tropopause. At this height, high
winds will flatten the top of the cloud
out into an anvil-like shape.

Solar
Radiation

is radiant energy emitted by the sun

from a nuclear fusion reaction that
creates electromagnetic energy. The
spectrum of solar radiationis close
to that of a black body with a
temperature of about 5800 K. About
half of theradiationis in the visible
short-wave part of the
electromagnetic spectrum.

Wind

Windis the flow of gases on a large scale.

On the surface of the Earth, wind consists of
the bulk movement ofair. Inouter
space,solar windis the movement ofgasesor
charged particles from the sunthrough space,
whileplanetary windis the out gassingof
lightchemical elementsfrom a planet's
atmosphere into space. Winds are commonly
classified by their spatial scale, theirspeed,
the types of forces that cause them, the
regions in which they occur, and their effect.

Temperat
ure

Atemperatureis an objective comparative

measure of hot or cold. It is measured by
athermometer, which may work through the
bulk behavior of a thermometric material,
detection ofthermal radiation, or
particlekinetic energy. Several scales and
unitsexist for measuring temperature, the
most common beingCelsius(denoted C;
formerly called
centigrade),Fahrenheit(denoted F), and,
especially in science,Kelvin(denoted K).

Severe
Weather

Weather changes from time to time.

The weather is sometimes bad, and it
is sometimes nice. Most serious
storms have heavy rains, winds,
snow, or hail. Some examples of
severe weather are tornadoes,
hurricanes, and thunderstorms. All of
these can cause massive destruction
where they occur, which is why there
are warnings on the TV and radio.

Tornadoes
Tornadoes, sometimes called twister, are formed from
a violently rotating column of air, suspended from a
cumulonimbus cloud, and almost visible as funnelshaped. If the cloud does not arrive at the surface, it is
a funnel cloud; if it touches a land surface, it is tornado;
and if it touches bodies of water, it is water sprout.
Tornado is the most violent and destructive of all
small-scale weather disturbances. It occurs with
isolated thunderstorm associated with lightning,
thunders, and cold fronts. They cause destruction to life
and property when they move across the surface at the
rate of 20 to 40 mph leaving destruction along its path.

Tropical
Tropical cyclonesCyclones
are violent storms that begin in the

tropics. They are the most powerful of all weather

systems. The average storm is about 340 miles in
diameter. According to their intensity, tropical cyclone
can be classified based on average one-minute wind
speeds. Tropical cyclone international classifications are:
Tropical Depression. Highest sustained winds up to
64km/hour (34 knots);
Tropical Storm. Highest sustained winds of 65 to 119
km/hour (35 through 64 knots); and
Typhoon or Hurricane. Highest sustained winds of
120 km/hour (65 knots) or more.

Different parts of the world call

tropical cycles by different names. A
tropical cyclone in the North Atlantic
and South Pacific is a hurricane; in
the Southeast Asia and the
Northwestern Pacific Ocean, typhoon;
near Australia, willy-willy; in the
Indian Ocean, cyclone; and bagyo in
the Philippines.

Tropical cyclones are formed over

the warm tropical water in ocean and
die down when they move over land.
Meteorologists try to forecast where
and when the center of the storm,
the eye, will reach land in order to
warn people about the damage
caused by the strong winds, heavy
rain, and storm surge associated with
the storm.

 The Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical

Services Administration (PAGASA) designate public storm
signals in locality where tropical cyclones pose hazard. The
four public storm signals are:
Public Storm Signal No.1. A weather disturbance is in the
locality, and winds of up to 60 km/hour are expected within 36
hours. Classes in the preschool are suspended.
Public Storm Signal No.2. The weather disturbance may
affect the locality, and winds of 60 to 100 km/hour may be
expected within the next 24 hours. Classes in the elementary
and high school levels are suspended.
Public Storm Signal No.3. The weather disturbance may be
dangerous to the locality, and winds over 100 km/hour may be
expected within 12 to 18 hours. Classes in all levels are
suspended.
Public Storm Signal No.4. The weather disturbance may be
dangerous and destructive, winds of more the 185 km/hour
may be expected in less than 12 hours. The coming of super
typhoon usually raised during this time.

Tropical cyclone is used to be

identified by their location, but that
became too confusing. From 1963 to
2000, the tropical cyclones that enter
the Philippine Area of Responsible
were given Filipino womens
nicknames ending in ng from the 19
letters of the Filipino alphabet.

Thunderstorms
Thunderstorms are one of the most thrilling and
dangerous of weather phenomena. Over 40,000
thunderstorms occur throughout the world each day.
Thunderstorms have distinct characteristics that can
cause large amounts of damage to humans and
their property. Straight-line winds and tornadoes can
uproot trees and demolish buildings. Hail can
damage cars and crops. Heavy rains can create
flash floods that are no. 1 weather-related killers.
Lighting can spark a forest fire and be life
threatening. Safety during a thunderstorm is
essential.

Fronts

Fronts are some of the basic building blocks of water

systems. Fronts from when two large air masses
collide at the earths surface. Each air mass has a
different temperature associated with it. Fronts are
caused by winds moving one air mass away from its
birthplace. Because turbulence occurs due to the
collision of air masses, fronts are usually associated
with some forms of precipitation. Thunderstorms,
Tornadoes, and other severe weather can occur with
fronts.
There are four (4) different types of fronts: cold fronts,
warm fronts, stationary fronts, and occluded fronts.

Cold Fronts
Cold fronts occur when heavy cold
air displaces lighter warm air,
pushing it upward. Cumulus clouds
are formed and usually grow into
thunderstorms. Temperatures Drop
anywhere from 5 degrees to 15.
Winds become gusty and erratic.
Rain, snow, sleet, and hail can occur
with a cold front.

Warm Fronts
Warm fronts appear when warm air
replaces cold air through sliding over
it. Alto cumulus clouds form and may
be associated with rain, snow, or
sleet. Temperatures may warm
slightly. Winds are usually gentle with
this kind of front.

Stationary Fronts
Stationary fronts occur when neither
warm nor cold air advances. The two
air masses reach a stalemate. This
Type of condition can last for days,
producing nothing but altocumulus
clouds. The temperature remains
stagnant and the wind is gentle to
nil.

Occluded Fronts
Occluded fronts are formed when cold air at
the surface is replaced with warm air above
and vice versa. A cold occlusion occurs when
cold air shoves its way under cool air at the
surface. Warm air aloft is usually to the west of
the surface front. A warm occlusion occurs
when cool air rises over cold air. The warm-cold
air boundary is often east of the surface front.
Both types of fronts are usually associated with
rain or snow and cumulus clouds. Temperature
fluctuations are small and winds are gentle.

Cloud Seeding
Weather modifications include planned
efforts and accidental actions that alter
natural atmospheric phenomena. The use
of chemicals to make rain (cloud seeding)
and to dissipate fog is the most common
form of planned weather modification.
Acid rain and smog are created by the
chemical waste products of industrial
complexes, cities, and certain agricultural
practices.

Weather chances can be induced, in

theory, by various means. In cloud
seeding, chemical agents are used to
intensify and trigger the
atmospheres natural processes. Fog
is a nuisance to both civil and
military aviation and in airport
runways because it decreases
visibility. A process known as fog
dissipation reduces fog. This is done
by injecting in the form of direct heat

The major effort in weathering modification has

been the chemical seeding of clouds. The physical
basis for cloud seeding is the induction of an
internal change in the cloud either prematurely or
with efficiency than it occurs in nature. Most cloud
seeding projects presume that at least a portion
of the cloud to be treated contains super cooled
water (unfrozen water drop existing at the
temperature below freezing) that more ice
particles can be produced and that treatment with
chemical agent refrigerants will change a portion
of the cloud into ice.

After seeding, the resultant mixture is water,

and ice is unstable. Water vapor is rapidly
deposited on the crustal, while water
simultaneously evaporates from the super cooled
water droplets in the cold upper part of the
cloud. The ice crystals become sufficiently large
to fall relatively to the remaining droplets and the
crystals collect water vapor and droplets as they
descend through the cloud. These particles of ice
or water can grow large and heavy enough to fall
from the cloud as precipitation.

The chemical agents used in cloud seeding

primarily have been dry ice or silver iodide.
Dry ice produces enormous numbers of ice
crystals an effect first observed in 1946
but it must be broadcasted from high
altitudes. Silver iodide is introduced into
clouds in the form of smoke either by smoke
generators by pyrotechnic (burning) devices.
Urea, an organic compound commonly used
as fertilizer, has been used in cloud seeding.

Weather
Forecasti
ng

How do meteorologists, people who

study weather and weather
conditions, forecast the days
weather? Weather conditions are
measured by standard instruments.
Surface wind speeds are usually
measured by an anemometer. An
anemometer consists of three or four
wind-driven cups mounted on a
vertical axis whose rate of rotation
varies with wind speed.

Wind direction is indicated by a

vane, a pointer that swings with the
wind, and is mounted on a vertical
axis attached to a compass rose. For
weather measurements, wind
direction always refers to the
direction from which the wind is
blowing.

Atmospheric pressure is measured

by an aneroid barometer, a flexible
metal vacuum box that expands or
contracts with changes in pressure.

Atmospheric pressure is measured

by a mercury barometer, a glass
tube, in which the height of column
of mercury varies with pressure
change. Continued pressure is
recorded by a barograph, barometer
that moves a pen against a rotating
drum.

Humidity data, including relative

humidity, vapor pressure, and dew
point are secured with the use of
hygrometer. The hygrometer is used
most often, a psychometric, consists
of a wet-bulb and dry-bulb
thermometer. The differences
between the temperatures recorded
by the two thermometers are related
to the amount of moisture in the air.

The ceiling, or base height or cloud

layers, is measured by automatic
ceilometers, which uses a beam of
pulsed light and photoelectric
telescope. The ceilometers can
measure in the daytime or a night.
Other methods sometimes used are
the ceiling light and the ceiling
balloon; both measure the base
height by triangulation.

Precipitation is usually measured by

a rain gauge, an open-mouthed
container that is used to measure the
rain. One inch generally means one
inch of water over one acre of
surface. Rain gauges are the primary
instruments for measuring the
quantity of precipitation. Radar is
used to measure the intensity of
rainfall or snowfall.

Surroundings of upper pressure,

temperature, humidity, and winds
are made by radiosondes carried
aloft to 100,000 ft or more by
balloons. The radiosondes transmit
data to ground recorders. The speed
and direction of upper winds are
obtained by the tracking of a
radiosonde with a radioc direction
finder, or radiotheodolite

 Such an observation is known as a

rawinsonde. Upper wind information
is also obtained by tracking an
ascending balloon visually with a
surveying instrument. Rockets are
used to obtain data up to an altitude
of about 200,000 ft, heights that
cannot be reached by balloons.

Doppler radar continuously

measures the wind, moisture, and
temperature in the upper
atmosphere. Doppler profiles record
the apparent shift in frequency with
respect to the observation point of
waves emitted by a moving source.
This phenomenon is known as
Doppler Effect.

Today, artificial satellites are used to predict

weather, an artificial satellite is an object placed
into orbit around the earth for the purpose of
scientific research. One kind of artificial satellite
is the weather satellite. The first weather
satellite is TIROS 1, which launched on April 1,
1960. Since its launch, the extent of cloud cover
pictures taken from satellites has gradually
increased until; beginning in 1966, the entire
earth has been photographed at least once daily
on a continuous basis.

Satellite data provide information about the

ocean, desert, and polar areas of the earth
where conventional weather reports are
unavailable or limited.
Satellite photos locate weather features
storms, fronts, upper-level troughs and ridges,
jet streams, fog, sea ice conditions, snow cover,
and to some extent, upper level wind direction
and speed that are characterized by certain
cloud formations. Coastal and island stations and
use such data to locate and track major storms.

Term
Airmass

Anticyclone

Cyclone

Fronts
Humidity
Polar Front

Synoptic Chart
Wave Cyclone

Meaning
A Large body of air with uniform
temperature and humidity of its
source region.
A large area of high atmospheric
pressure characterized by outwardspiraling winds.
A Large-scale area of low atmospheric
pressure characterized by inwardspiraling winds.
The surface between two different air
masses.
Amount of water vapor in the air.
The surface between polar and
tropical air masses along which
cyclonic disturbances are formed.
A map depicting the weather in an
area at a given amount.
A storm or low-pressure center
that moves along a front.

What is
Climate?

Climate refers to weather conditions

at some locality averaged over a
specified time period. Unlike
weather, climate does not vary from
time to time and does not change
from day to day. Climate is fixed in a
particular place. How important is
this climate?

It governs the supply of fresh water

and it affects the type of crop that
can be cultivated. That is the reason
why some plants grow in one country
or continent and not in others. Also,
the type of animal that lives in a
particular place or country is affected
by climate. Climate includes the
long-term average condition. In the
Philippines, there are four (4) climate
types.

Type 1
is characterized by having two (2)
pronounced seasons, one dry, which
is from November to April. The other
is wet regions on the western part of
the islands of Luzon, Mindoro,
Negros, and Palawan. The controlling
factor is topography. The localities of
this type are from the northern and
from the traders by mountain ranges.
They are open only to the southwest

Type 2
climate has no dry season but have a very
pronounced maximum rain period from
November to January. In this class falls
Catanduanes, Sorsogon, the eastern part of
Albay, the eastern-northern part of
Catanduanes Sur and Camarines Norte. Also
included is the great portion if eastern
Mindanao. These regions are along or very
near the eastern coast and are sheltered
neither from the northern traders nor from
cyclonic.

Type 3
is characterized by hot season, which is very
pronounced, relatively dry from November to April and
wet during rest of the year. The maximum rain periods
are not very pronounced with the short dry season
lasting only from one to three months. Regions with
this type of climate are the western part of Cagayan,
Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, the eastern portion of
Mountain Province, southern Quezon, Masbate,
Romblon, northeast Panay, eastern Negros, central
and southern Cebu, part of northern Mindanao and
most of the eastern Palawan. This area is open to
southwest monsoon or at least to frequent cyclonic
storms.

Type 4
Rainfall more or less evenly
distributed throughout the year in
Type 4 climate, the regions affected
by this type are Batanes province,
northeastern Luzon, southwestern
part of Camarines Norte, the western
part of Camarines Sur and Albay,
Bontoc, eastern Leyte, Bohol and
most of central, eastern and
southern Mindanao.