STC

SYSTEL Training Center

Microwave Transmission
Basics & Design

Contents

Transmission techniques
Microwave Radio Basics
Radio Network Planning Aspects
Radio Network Planning Process
Radio wave Propagation
Link Engineering & Reliability
Interference Analysis
PtP MW Transmission Issues
Useful Formulae

STC

What is Transport ?

Transport is an entity that carries information between Network Nodes

Information is sent over a carrier between Network Nodes.

Carrier is sent over a Transmission Media

Commonly used Transmission Media :

Copper Cables

Microwave Radio

Optical Fiber

Infra Red Radio

STC

Transmission techniques

Transmission techniques
PDH
SDH
Ethernet

STC

MW LINK traffic
PDH
MW LINK

MW LINK
MW LINK

E2
8Mbit/s

E1
2Mbit/s

x4

x63

x4
x3

STM-1
155Mbit/s

E3
34Mbit/s

x4

x1
STM-4

x4

E4
140Mbit/s

622Mbit/s

STM-16
x4

2.5Gbit/s

MW LINK
SDH
6

STC

Synchronous Transmission Network

1980 Synchronous Optical Network, Sonet
ANSI Standard
Synchronous Transfer Signal
STS-1:
51,84Mbit/s
STS-3:
155,52 Mbit/s (OC-3)
STS-12:
622,08 Mbit/s
STS-48:
2488,32 Mbit/s

MW LINK

1988 (1990) Synchronous Digital Hierarchy, SDH

ETSI Standard
Synchronous Transfer Mode
(STM-0
51.84Mbit/s)
STM-1
155,52 Mbit/s
STM-4
622,08 Mbit/s
STM-16
2488,32 Mbit/s
STM-64
10 Gbit/s
STC

SDH Multiplexing Hierarchy

PDH
STM-1
STM-4
STM-16
Clock
ATM

STM-1
155.52

STM-4
622.08

STM-16
STM-64
2488.32 9953.28Mbit/s

Byte interleaved multiplexing.

All Network Elements use
the same clock.
+ Tributaries can be mapped into
+ Bit-rates are always an absolute
and extracted from any
multiple of the lower one.
Mux. order.
+ Allows for higher capacities
8

STC

Overhead

Section Overhead

Physical network supervision

Traffic

+ Path Overhead

Traffic

+ Path Overhead

Logical network supervision

SDH/Sonet frames contains path and section supervision data.

Path Overhead: POH, End to end supervision
Section Overhead: SOH, physical network supervision
9

STC

Schematic ETSI mapping model

T

1,5 Mbit/s
6 Mbit/s
45 Mbit/s
2 Mbit/s
34 Mbit/s
140 Mbit/s

Packet

x21 84 in
33 (x
x
6
x
x63
x3
x1

t)
e
n
So

STM-1

ATM
Ethernet

Different combinations of PDH tributaries are possible.

10

STC

STM-1 frame
Columns
STM-n

n x 9 columns
1
9 10
1
Section
Overhead
(SOH)
3
AU-pointer

Rows 5
Section
Overhead
(SOH)

64kbit/s

n x 261 columns
270

VC-4
Traffic + Path Overhead
150,336 Mbit/s
261 columns

125s (155,52 Mbit/s)

11

STC

63xE1 mapping into STM-1

Low order POH
Justification bits
Pointer
x3

E1

TUG-2

(=3xE1)

6.912Mbit/s

x7
+ Pointer

E1 2.048Mbit/s
C-12 2.224Mbit/s
VC-12 2.240Mbit/s
TU-12 2.304Mbit/s

TUG-3
49.536Mbit/s

(=21xE1)

x3
+ High order POH
+ Stuffing

STM-1
155.52Mbit/s

+ SOH

+ Pointer

VC-4
150.336Mbit/s

(=63xE1)

5.184Mbit/s
12

STC

Microwave Radio Basics

Basic Modules
Configuration
Applications
Advantages

Microwave Radio - Modules

Microwave Radio Terminal has 3 Basic Modules

Digital Modem : To interface with customer

equipment and to convert customer traffic to a
modulated signal
RF Unit : To Up and Down Convert signal in RF
Range
Passive Parabolic Antenna : For Transmitting
and Receiving RF Signal

Two Microwave Terminals Forms a Hop

Microwave
Communication requires LOS
14

STC

Basic Hardware Configurations

Non Protected or 1+ 0 Configuration

Protected or 1+1 Configuration, also

known as MHSB [monitored hot standby]

15

In MHSB Modem and RF Unit are duplicated

STC

Microwave Radio Capacity

Configurations

Commonly Used Capacity Configurations

4 x 2 Mbps or 4 x E1

8 x 2 Mbps or 8 x E1

16 x 2 Mbps

or 16 x E1

155 Mbps

or STM1

16

STC

Microwave Radio - Applications

As Transport Medium in
Basic Service Networks

Mobile Cellular Network

Last Mile Access

Private Networks

17

STC

Microwave Radio Advantages

Advantages over Optical Fiber / Copper Cable

System
Rapid Deployment

Flexibility

Lower Startup and Operational Cost

No ROW Issues

Low MTTR

18

STC

Microwave Radio - Manufacturers

Few well known Radio Manufacturers

Motorola
Nokia
Nera
NEC
Siemens
Digital Microwave Corporation
Fujitsu
Ericsson
Alcatel
Hariss

19

STC

Microwave Network Planning

Aspects
1.
2.
3.

Network Architecture
Route Configuration
Choice of Frequency Band

Network Architecture

Common Network Architectures

Spur or Chain

Star

Ring

Mesh

Combination of Above

21

STC

Chain Architecture
B
A
C
E
Spur Architecture

For N Stations N-1 Links are required

Nth station depends on N-1 Links

22

STC

Star Architecture
D

Star Architecture

For N Stations N-1 Links are required

Each Station depends on Only 1 Link

23

STC

Loop Architecture
D

E
B

A
C
Loop Architecture

For N Stations N Links are required

Route Diversity is available for all stations

24

STC

Loop protection is effective against faults, which are caused by e.g.

power failure
equipment failure
unexpected cut of cable
human mistake
rain and multipath fading cutting microwave radio connections

25

STC

To Next
BSC

BSC

BTS
DN2 or METROHUB
MW RADIO
SINGLE MODE MW LINK
HSB MODE MW LINK
COPPER CONNECTION

To Next
BSC

Figure 2. Primary solution where loop masters (DN2)

are colocated in the BSC.

26

STC

To Next
BSC

BSC

BTS
DN2 or METROHUB
MW RADIO
SINGLE MODE MW LINK
HSB MODE MW LINK
COPPER CONNECTION

To Next
BSC

Figure 3. Solution of using remote loop master (DN2)

co-located in a remote BTS

27

STC

Mesh Architecture
B

A
C
Mesh Architecture

Each Station is Connected to Every Other

Full Proof Route Protection
For N sites (Nx2)-1

28

STC

Typical Network Architecture

B

Typical Architecture

A
C
I

Typical Network Consist of Rings and Spurs

29

STC

Network Routes & Route Capacities

Inter- City routes - Backbone

Backbone routes are planned at Lower
Frequency Bands
2, 6 and 7 GHz Frequency Bands are used
Backbone routes are normally high capacity
routes
Nominal Hop Distances 25 40 Km
Intra City routes - Access
Access routes are planned at Higher Frequency
Bands
15,18 and 23 GHz Frequency Bands are used
Nominal Hop Distance 1 10 Km
30

STC

Frequency Bands

Frequency Band 7, 15, 18 and 23 GHz are allowed

to Private Operators for deployment in Transport
Network

31

15,18 and 23 GHz bands are used for Access

Network
7 GHz band is used for Backbone Network
Different Channeling Plans are available in
these bands to accommodate different
bandwidth requirements
Bandwidth requirement is decided by Radio
Capacity offered by the Manufacturer
STC

MICROWAVE
PROPAGATION

32

STC

Free Space Propagation

Microwave Propagation in Free Space is
Governed by Laws of Optics
Like any Optical Wave , Microwave also
undergoes
- Refraction
- Reflection

33

STC

Free Space Propagation - Refraction

Ray bending due to layers of different
densities

Bent Rays In Atmosphere

34

STC

Free Space Propagation - Refraction

In effect the Earth appears elevated
Earth elevation is denoted by K Factor
K Factor depends on Rate of Change of
Refractivity with height
K= 2/3 Earth appears more elevated
K= 4/3 Earth appears flatter w.r.t K=2/3
K=
Ray Follows Earth Curvature

35

STC

Free Space Propagation - Refraction

K = 2/3
K = 4/3
Actual Ground

Effect of Refractivity Change

36

STC

Free Space Propagation

Reflections

Microwaves are reflected over

Smooth Surfaces
Water Bodies

Reflected Signals are 180 out of phase

Reflection can be a major cause of outages
Link needs to be planned carefully to avoid
reflections

37

STC

RF Propagation Reflections

Reflections can come from ANYWHERE behind, under, in-front

6 cm difference can change Path
geometry

38

STC

Fresnel Zone

The Fresnel zone is the area of space

between the two antennas in which
the radio signal travels.
For Clear Line of Sight Fresnel Zone
Should be clear of obstacles
It is depands on Distance and
Frequency

39

STC

FRESNEL ZONES

1st Fresnel Zone

Mid Path

40

STC

FRESNEL ZONE CLEARANCES

1ST Fresnal Zone = 17.3 (d1*d2)/f(d1+d2)

d1

d2

d1 = Distance in Kilometers from Antenna A to mid point

d2 = Distance in Kilometers from Antenna B to mid point
f = Frequency in GHz

41

STC

RF propagation
First Fresnel Zone

F o o d M a rt

42

STC

RF propagation
Free space versus non free space
Non-free space
Line of sight required
Objects protrude in the fresnel
zone, but do not block the path

Free Space
Line of sight
No objects in the fresnel zone
Antenna height is significant
Distance relative short (due to
effects of curvature of the earth)

43

STC

FRESNEL ZONE & EARTH

BULGE

Height = D2/8 + 43.3D/4F

43.3D/4F 60% first Fresnel Zone

D2/8

Earth Bulge

D = Distance Between Antennas

44

STC

RF Propagation
Antenna Height requirements

Fresnel Zone Clearance = 0.6 first Fresnel distance

(Clear Path for Signal at mid point)
30 feet for 10 Km path

Clearance for Earths Curvature

13 feet for 10 Km path
200 feet for 40 Km path

57 feet for 40 Km path

Midpoint clearance = 0.6F + Earth curvature + 10' when K=1

First Fresnel Distance (meters) F1= 17.3 [(d1*d2)/(f*D)]1/2 where D=path length Km, f=frequency (GHz) , d1= distance
from Antenna1(Km) , d2 = distance from Antenna 2 (Km)
Earth Curvature h = (d1*d2) /2 where h = change in vertical distance from Horizontal line (meters), d1&d2 distance from
antennas 1&2 respectively

Antenna
Height

Fresnel Zone
Clearance
Obstacle
Clearance

Antenna
Height

Earth Curvature

45

STC

Microwave Network Planning

Process
1.
2.
3.
4.

Design Basis
Line of Sight Survey
Link Engineering
Interference Analysis

Planning Process EX.

RF Nominal Planning (NP)/

Application for Frequency
License

Microwave Link Planning

and LOS Checking for
BTSs

Define BSC
Borders

Change BTS Prime

Candidate?

Estimate BSC
Locations

Preliminary Transmission
Planning and LOS
Checking for possible
BSCs

N
Update LOS Reports,
Frequency Plan, Planning
Database, Equipment
Summary
Change BTS Prime
Candidate?

Finalize BSC
Locations
N
Customer to apply SACFA
based on Nokia Technical
Inputs

Figure 1. Microwave Link Planning

Process

47

STC

Design Basis

Choice of Radio Equipment

Fresnel Zone Clearance Objectives

Availability / Reliability Objectives

Interference Degradation Objectives

Tower Height & Loading Restrictions

48

STC

Microwave Network Planning

Process

Map Study for feasibility of Line of Sight and

Estimating Tower Heights
Actual Field Survey for refining map data and
finalizing Antenna Heights
Link Power Budgeting & Engineering
Frequency and Polarization Assignments
Interference Analysis (Network Level)
Final Link Engineering (Network Level)

49

STC

Map Study

Maps are available in different Scales

Sites are Plotted on Map
Intersection with Water Bodies is also noted
AMSL [above mean sea level] of Sight is
determined by Interpolation

50

STC

Map Study

Vegetation height (15-20m) is added to Map Data

Path Profile is drawn on Graph for Earth Bulge
Factor (K) =4/3 and 2/3
Fresnel Zone Depths are Calculated & Plotted for
Design Frequency Band
Antennae Heights are Estimated for Design
Clearance Criteria

51

STC

Field Survey

Equipment Required
Data Required
GPS Receiver
- Map Study Data
Camera
Magnetic Compass
Altimeter
Binocular / Telescope
Flashing Mirror
Flags
Inclinometer
Balloon Set
Measuring Tapes
52

STC

Field Survey

Field Survey

Map Data Validation

Gathering Field inputs (Terrain Type, Average
Tree/Obstacle Height, Critical Obstruction etc.)
Line of Sight Check, if feasible ,using flags, mirror
Data related to other stations in the vicinity , their
coordinates, frequency of operation, antenna size,
heights, power etc.
Proximity to Airport / Airstrip with their co-ordinates

Field inputs are used to refine existing path

profile data , reflection point determination,
reflection analysis
53

STC

RF propagation
Environmental conditions
Line of Sight

No objects in path
between antenna
a. Neighboring
Buildings
b. Trees or other
obstructions

Interference
c. Power lines
54

STC

Fading
Phenomenon of Attenuation of Signal Due
to Atmospheric and Propagation
Conditions is called Fading
Fading can occur due to
Refractions
Reflections
Atmospheric Anomalies

55

STC

Fading
Types of Fading
Multipath Fading
Frequency Selective Fading
Rain Fading

56

STC

Multipath Fading
Multipath fading is caused due to
reflected / refracted signals arriving at
receiver
Reflected Signals arrive with
Delay
Phase Shift
Result in degradation of intended Signal
Space Diversity Radio Configuration is
used to Counter Multipath Fading
57

STC

Frequency Selective Fading

Frequency Selective Fading
Due to Atmospheric anomalies different
frequencies undergo different
attenuation levels
Frequency Diversity Radio Configuration
is used to Counter Frequency Selective
Fading

58

STC

Rain Fading
Frequency Band > 10 GHz are affected due
to Rain as Droplet size is comparable to
Wavelengths
Rain Fading Occur over and above
Multipath and Frequency Selective Fading
Horizontal Polarization is more prone to
Rain Fades
Path Diversity / Route Diversity is the only
counter measure for Rain Fade

59

STC

Drop Shape and Polarization

As raindrops increase
in size, they get more
extended in the Horizontal
direction, and therefore
will attenuate horizontal
polarization more than
vertical polarization
2.0mm

60

1mm

1.5mm

2.5mm

STC

Fade Margin
Margin required to account for Fading
Fade Margin
Higher Fade Margin provide better Link
Reliability
Fade Margin of 35 40 dB is normally
provided

61

STC

Link Engineering &

Reliability
1.
2.
3.

Link Budgeting
Reliability Predictions
Interference Analysis

Hop Model

Outdoor Unit

Outdoor Unit

Indoor Unit

Indoor Unit

Traffic

Traffic

Station A
63

Station B
STC

Link Power Budget

Received Signal Level = Rxl
RxlB = TxA LA + GA Fl + GB
LB
Where
TXA = Trans Power Station A
LA = Losses at Station A (Misc.)
GA = Antenna Gain at Station A
Fl = Free Space Losses
GB = Antenna Gain at Station B
LB = Losses at Station B
RxlB = Rx. Level at Station B

RXL must be > Receiver Sensitivity always

64

STC

Link Power Budget Receiver

Sensitivity

Lowest Possible Signal which can be

detected by
Receiver is called Receiver Sensitivity or
Threshold
Threshold Value is Manufacturer Specific
Depends on Radio Design

Higher (-ve) Value Indicates better Radio Design

65

STC

Link Engineering

Software Tools are used

Inputs to the tool
Sight Co-ordinates
Path Profile Data
Terrain Data & Rain Data
Equipment Data
Antenna Data
Frequency and Polarization Data
Tool Output
Availability Prediction
66

STC

RF propagation
Simple Path Analysis Concept (alternative)
+ Antenna Gain

+ Antenna Gain

- Path Loss over link

Antenna

RF Cable

Antenna

distance

- LOSS
Cable/connectors

- LOSS
Cable/connectors

Lightning Protector

Lightning Protector

pigtail cable

PC Card

WP II

RF Cable

pigtail cable

+ Transmit Power
RSL (receive signal level) + Fade Margin = sensitivity

PC Card

WP II

Calculate signal in one direction if Antennas and active components are equal

67

STC

Link Engineering
Interference

Interference is caused due to undesirable

RF Signal Coupling

Threshold is degraded due to interference

Degraded Threshold results in reduced

reliability

68

STC

Link Engineering
Interference

Examples of Undesirable RF Couplings

V
H

F1

Cross Poler Coupling

Finite Value of XPD in Antenna is the Prime

Cause
Solution : Use of High Performance
Antenna
69

STC

Link Engineering
Interference

Examples of Undesirable RF Coupling

F2
F1
Adjacent Channel

Receiver Filter Cut-off is tappered

Solution : Use Radio with better
Specifications
70

STC

Link Engineering
Interference

Examples of Undesirable RF Coupling

T : Low
R : Hi

T : Hi
R : Low

T : Hi
R : Low

T : Low
R : Hi

Front to Back

Finite value of FTB Ratio of Antenna is

Prime Cause
Solution : Antenna with High FTB Ratio
71

STC

Link Engineering
Interference

Examples of Undesirable RF Coupling

T : Low
R : Hi

T : Hi
R : Low

T : Hi
R : Low

T : Low
R : Hi

T : Low
R : Hi

T : Hi
R : Low

Over Reach

Solution : Choose Antenna Heights such a

way there is no LOS for over reach

72

STC

Link Engineering
Interference

Interference is calculated at Network Level

Interference due to links

73

Within Network
Outside Network (Links of other Operators)

Interfering Signal degrades Fade Margin

Engineering Calculation re-done with
degraded Fade Margin

STC

Link Engineering
Interference

Counter Measures

74

Avoid Hi-Lo violation in loop

Frequency Discrimination
Polarization Discrimination
Angular Discrimination
High Performance Antennae
Lower Transmit Power , if possible

STC

PtP Microwave Transmission - Issues

Link Performance is Seriously Affected due to
Atmospheric Anomalies like Ducting
Ground Reflections
Selective Fading
Excessive Rains
Interferences
Thunderstorms / High Winds causing Antenna
Misalignment
Earthing
Equipment Failure

75

STC

Some Useful Formulae

Link Budget
+GA
+Tx A
A

+GB
-Lfs-Arain

Rx B
B

RxB TxA GA Lfs ARain GB

77

STC

Free Space Loss

L fs 92.45 20 log( d f )
d = distance in kilometers f = frequency in GHz
Examples
39 GHz
d=1km ---> L = 124 dBm
d=2km ---> L = 130 dBm
78

26 GHz
d=1km ---> L = 121 dBm
d=2km ---> L = 127 dBm
STC

RF Propagation
Basic loss formula
Propagation Loss

PR

PT G(

2
)
4 d

d = distance between Tx and Rx antenna [meter]

PT = transmit power [mW]
PR = receive power [mW]
G = antennae gain
Pr ~ 1/f2 * D2

which means 2X Frequency

2 X Distance

79

= 1/4 Power

= 1/4 Power

STC

Useful Formulae Earth

Bulge
Earth Bulge at a distance d1 Km
= d1 * d2 / (12.75 * K) Meter
Where d2 = (d d1) Km (d Km Hop
Distance)
K = K Factor

80

STC

Useful Formulae Fresnel

Zone
Nth Fresnel Zone Depth at a distance d1 Km
= N * 17.3 * ( (d1*d2) / (f * d) )

1/2

Meter

Where d2 = (d d1) Km
d = Hop Distance in Km
f = Frequency in GHz
N = No. of Fresnel zone (eg. 1st or 2nd )

81

STC

Tower Height Calculation :

Th = Ep + C + OH + Slope Ea
C = B1 + F
Slope = (( Ea Eb) d1)/ D
F = 17.3 ((d1xd2)/f X D) -1/2
B = (d1 x d2) / (12.75 x K )
Where,
Th = Tower Height
Ep = Peak / Critical Obstruction
C = Other losses
B1 = Earth Buldge
F = Fresnel Zone
OH = Overhead Obstruction
Ea= Height of Site A
Eb= Height of Site B
d1= Dist. From site A to Obstruction
d2= Dist. From site B to Obstruction
D = Path Distance
f= Frequency
K= 4/3
82

Ea

Ep

d1

Eb

d2

STC

Useful Formulae Antenna Gain

Antenna Gain

17.6 + 20 * log10 (f *d) dBi

See Note

Where d= Antennae Diameter in Meter

f= Frequency in GHz
Note # Assuming 60% Efficiency
83

STC

Useful Formulae Free Space Loss

Free Space Loss
Fl= 92.4 + 20 * log10 (f *d) dB

Where
d = Hop Distance in Km
f = Frequency in GHz

84

STC

Useful Formulae Geo Climatic

Factor
Geo Climatic Factor
G = 10

* (Pl)1.5

Where T= Terrain Factor

= 6.5 for Overland Path Not in Mountain
= 7.1 for Overland Path in Mountain
= 6.0 for Over Large Bodies of Water

Pl = Pl factor

85

STC

Useful Formulae System

Gain
System Gain =

(Transmit Power + ABS(Threshold) ) dB

Fade Margin = FM =

(Nominal Received Signal

Threshold) dB

Path Inclination = ABS ((h

+ A1) (h2 + A2) ) / d

Where h1 = Ant. Ht. At Stn A AGL Meter

h2 = Ant. Ht. At Stn B AGL Meter
A1 = AMSL of Stn A Meter
A2 = AMSL of Stn B Meter
d = Hop Distance in KM

86

STC

Useful Formulae Fade Occurrence

Factor
Fade Occurrence Factor =

= G * d 3.6 *f 0.89 * (1+ ) -1.4

Where

87

G = Geo Climatic Factor

d = Hop Distance in Km
f = Frequency in GHz
= Path Inclination in mRad

STC

Useful Formulae Outage

Probability
Worst Month Outage Probability (One Way) % = OWM
OWM % = * 10 (FM/10)
Annual Unavailability (One Way) % = OWM * 0.3
Assuming 4 Worst Months in a Year

Annual Availability (Two Way) % = 100-(OWM*0.3*2)

88

STC