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Contents
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Upon completion of the chapter the student
should be able to:
State the principle by which machines convert
mechanical energy to electrical energy.
Discuss the operating differences between different
types of generators
Understand the principle of DC generator as it
represents a logical behavior of dc motors.
DC Generator
A dc generator is a machine that converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy
(dc voltage and current) by using the
principle of magnetic induction.
In this example, the ends of the wire loop
have been connected to two slip rings
mounted on the shaft, while brushes are
used to carry the current from the loop to
the outside of the circuit.
Principle of magnetic induction in DC machine
DC Motor
Construction of DC machine
Construction of DC machine
segments
Rotor of a dc motor.
brushes
Construction of DC machine
Rotor is the rotating part - armature
Stator is the stationary part - field
Armature coil
Brushes
ARMATURE
DC machine armature
ARMATURE WINDINGS
FIELD WINDINGS
Most DC machines use wound electromagnets to provide the
magnetic field.
Two types of field windings are used :
series field
shunt field
Square wire permits more turns than round wire in the same area
When a DC machine uses both series and shunt fields, each pole
piece will contain both windings.
The windings are wound on the pole pieces in such a manner that
when current flows through the winding it will produce alternate
magnetic polarities.
MACHINE WINDINGS
OVERVIEW
Winding
armature
field
Self excited
Wave
C=2
Lap
C=2p
Frogleg
series
shunt
compound
Separately
Excited
THE ELEMENTARY
GENERATOR
Elementary Generator
The loop of wire that rotates through the field is called the
ARMATURE.
ARMATURE The ends of the armature loop are connected to rings
called SLIP RINGS.
RINGS They rotate with the armature.
900 Position
2700 Position
THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
As the loop continues to rotate, the
voltage decreases to zero.
After 1800 of rotation, the
conductors are again parallel to
the lines of flux, and no voltage is
induced in the loop.
Note that the brushes again make
contact with both segments of the
commutator at the time when there
is no induced voltage in the
conductors
THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
As the loop continues to rotate, the induced
voltage again decreases to zero when the
conductors become parallel to the
magnetic lines of flux.
Notice that during this 3600 rotation of the
loop the polarity of voltage remained the
same for both halves of the waveform. This
is called rectified DC voltage.
The voltage is pulsating. It does turn on
and off, but it never reverses polarity. Since
the polarity for each brush remains
constant, the output voltage is DC.
THE ELEMENTARY DC
GENERATOR
Observes
The meter direction
The conductors of the armature loop
Direction of the current flow
DC Motor Operation
In a dc motor, the stator
poles are supplied by dc
excitation current, which
produces a dc magnetic
field.
The rotor is supplied by dc
current through the brushes,
commutator and coils.
The interaction of the
magnetic field and rotor
current generates a force
that drives the motor
DC Motor Operation
The magnetic field lines enter
into the rotor from the north
pole (N) and exit toward the
south pole (S).
The poles generate a
magnetic field that is
perpendicular to the current
carrying conductors.
The interaction between the
field and the current produces
a Lorentz force,
The force is perpendicular to
both the magnetic field and
conductor
30
Vdc
Ir_dc
B
a
30
Vdc
Ir_dc
(b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
DC Motor Operation
The generated force turns the rotor
until the coil reaches the neutral
point between the poles.
At this point, the magnetic field
becomes practically zero together
with the force.
However, inertia drives the motor
beyond the neutral zone where the
direction of the magnetic field
reverses.
To avoid the reversal of the force
direction, the commutator changes
the current direction, which
maintains the counterclockwise
rotation.
30
Vdc
Ir_dc
B
a
30
Vdc
Ir_dc
(b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
DC Motor Operation
Before reaching the neutral zone,
the current enters in segment 1
and exits from segment 2,
Therefore, current enters the coil
end at slot a and exits from slot b
during this stage.
After passing the neutral zone, the
current enters segment 2 and
exits from segment 1,
This reverses the current direction
through the rotor coil, when the
coil passes the neutral zone.
The result of this current reversal
is the maintenance of the rotation.
30
Vdc
Ir_dc
B
a
30
Vdc
Ir_dc
(b) Rotor current flow from segment 2 to 1 (slot b to a)
1.
2.
3.
Permanent magnet
Separately excited
Self-excited
1.
Permanent magnet
Separately excited
The field flux is derived from a separate power source
independent of the generator itself.
Field
winding
Armature
winding
Self-excited
Shunt machine
The field flux is derived by
connecting the field directly
across the terminals of the
generator.
Self-excited
Series machine
Self-excited
Cumulatively compounded
B
Differentially compounded
Self-excited
Compounded dc generator
both a shunt and a series field are
present
Self-excited
Compounded dc motor
Equivalent circuit of a DC
motor
The armature circuit (the entire
rotor structure) is represented by
an ideal voltage source EA and a
resistor RA. A battery Vbrush in the
opposite to a current flow in the
machine direction indicates brush
voltage drop.
The field coils producing the
magnetic flux are represented by
inductor LF and resistor RF. The
resistor Radj represents an
external variable resistor
(sometimes lumped together with
the field coil resistance) used to
control the amount of current in
the field circuit.
resistor RA.
The brush voltage drop is represented by a small battery Vbrush
opposing the direction of the current flow in the machine.
The field coils, which produce the magnetic flux, are represented by
inductor LF and RF.
The separate resistor Radj represents an external variable resistor
used to control the amount of current in the field circuit.
The brush drop voltage is often only a very tiny fraction of the
VF
IF
RF
VT E A I A R A
IL IA
Shunt DC motor:
a field circuit gets its power from the
armature terminals of the motor.
VF
IF
RF
VT E A I A R A
IL IA IF
VT E A I A RA RS
Long-shunt
connection
Short-shunt
connection
VT E A I A RA RS
I A IL IF
The mmf of a compounded DC motor:
(5.85.1)
VT
IF
RF
(5.85.2)
(5.85.3)
Cumulatively compounded
(5.85.4)
Differentially compounded
N SE
FAR
I IF
IA
NF
NF
*
F
(5.85.5)
Number of turns
Torque Equation
T k AI A
T = torque of armature (N-m)
kA = geometry constant
= flux/pole (Wb)
IA = armature current (A)
Geometry Constant
pN
pN
'
kA
(rad / s ), k A
(rpm)
2M
60 M
p = number of field poles
N = number of active conductors on armature
M = number of parallel paths in armature winding (=p for
lap winding, =2 for wave winding)
Power Equation
P EI A T
P=power (W) not counting losses
E = EMF induced in armature (back EMF)
IA = armature current (A)
T = torque of armature (N-m)
= speed of rotation (rad/s)
Note that Pin = VLIL which will be higher than P because of
loss in the field and armature windings as well as
rotational (friction) losses.
EMF Equation
E k A k n
'
A
60
n
2
VT
VT E I A R A
Speed Equation
VT I A R A
n
k A'
(applies to shunt connected motor only)
Note that can also be written as kfIf where kf is
/If (normally a constant ratio)
Ratio Equation
n2 E 2
n1 E1
Speed-Torque
Speed
Differential Compound
Shunt
Cumulative Compound
Series
Torque
Pout
x100%
Pin
or
Pin Ploss
x100%
Pin
1. Electrical or copper losses the resistive losses in the armature and field
windings of the machine.
Armature loss:
Field loss:
PA I A2 RA
PF I RF
2
F
Where IA and IF are armature and field currents and RA and RF are armature and
field (winding) resistances usually measured at normal operating temperature.
PBD VBD I A
Where IA is the armature current and VBD is the brush voltage drop. The voltage drop
across the set of brushes is approximately constant over a large range of armature
currents and it is usually assumed to be about 2 V.
Other losses are exactly the same as in AC machines
Electrical power is input to the machine, and the electrical and brush losses must be
subtracted. The remaining power is ideally converted from electrical to mechanical
form at the point labeled as Pconv.
Pconv E A I A
And the resulting mechanical power is
Pconv ind m
After the power is converted to mechanical form, the stray losses, mechanical
losses, and core losses are subtracted, and the remaining mechanical power is
output to the load.
Example 1
A 6 pole, 3.0 hp 120V DC lap-wound shunt motor has 960 conductors
in the armature. It takes 25.0 A from the supply at full load.
Armature resistance is 0.75, flux/pole=10.0 mWb, field winding
current is 1.20A. Find the speed and torque.
E K A
746W
2.24kW
hp
P 3hp
I A I L I F 25 A 1.2 A 23.8 A
E VT I A RA 120V 23.8 A 0.75 102V
6 960 153
pN
KA
2M 2 6
E
102V
66.9rad / s
3
K A 153 10 x10
60
638rpm
2
n
T
P
2.24kW
33.5 N m
66.9rad / s
Example 2
A 10hp, 115V Dc series motor takes 40A at its full load speed of
1800rpm. What is the torque at 30A?
2n 2 1800
188rad / s
60
60
T K AI A K A K F I F I A
IF I A
746W
7.46kW
hp
P 10hp
P T
P
7.46kW
T
39.6 N m
188rad / s
T K AKF I A
K AKF
T
39.6 N m
0.025
2
40 A 2
IA
Example 3 (a)
A 220V DC shunt motor draws 10A at 1800rpm. The armature
resistance is 0.2 and field winding resistance is 440.
(a) What is the torque?
IF
VT 220V
0.5 A
RF 440
I A I L I F 10 A 0.5 A 9.5 A
E VT I A RA 220V 9.5 A 0.2 218V
P EI A 218V 9.5 A 2.07 kW
2n 2 1800
188rad / s
60
60
P
2.07kW
11.0 N m
188rad / s
Example 3 (b)
A 220V DC shunt motor draws 10A at 1800rpm. The armature
resistance is 0.2 and field winding resistance is 440.
(b) What will be the speed and line current at a torque of 20 N-m (if
field current is constant)?
E K A
K A
E
218V
1.16
188rad / s
T K AI A
IA
T
20 N m
17.3 A
K A
1.16
E
217V
187 rad / s
K A 1.16
60
1.79 x103 rpm
2