Coverage Planning: Icn PLM Ca NP

s
Coverage Planning
ICN PLM CA NP
SIEMENS Limited 1999
Main Topics
Radio network design objectives
The mobile radio channel
Free space propagation
Propagation over a reflecting surface
Diffraction loss
Knife edge diffraction
Fading
Short term fading
Frequency selectivity
Bit error rate vs. S/N
Long term fading
Quality of service
Multipath propagation
Doppler effect
Macrocell path loss models
GSM900 band
GSM1800/1900 band
Microcell models
Walfisch-Ikegami model
COST231 outdoor to indoor model
ICN PLM CA NP
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CW measurements
Block diagram of the GSM radio system
Required received level
Reference sensitivity level
Diversity
Frequency diversity
Multipath diversity
Antenna space diversity
Diversity combining techniques
Link budget
Maximum path loss
Data applications
Link budget for GPRS
Link budget for HSCSD
Fade margin
Indoor / in-car penetration losses
Feeder losses
Link budget - example calculation
Hierarchical cell structures
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Main Topics (continued)

Indoor coverage solutions
Outdoor BTS near important building
Combined indoor / outdoor site
Indoor repeater
Micro BTS
Coaxial feeder network
Optical fibre repeater
Pico BTS
Leaky cable
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Radio Network Design Objectives

Maximise coverage
Coverage area per base station site
Minimise network cost
Coverage class within the radio cell
Maximise service quality
Minimise interference
Maximise service quality
Maximise capacity
Within available frequency spectrum
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The Mobile Radio Channel

Propagation phenomena
multipath
Reflection
Reflection
Refraction
atmospheric
ht > 90m
d > 23 km
Scattering
Diffraction
Reflection
signal bends
around obstacles
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near mobile
short term fading
Free Space Propagation

Power dispersion
power density decreases with distance
Pt
2
W/m
4r 2
isotropic receiving antenna with aperture A (A=2/(4)) will receive

power
Pt A
Pt 2
Pr
4r 2
4r 2
Assume transmitting and receiving antennae Gt and Gr respectively

and rearranging
Pr
c2
Pt
Gt Gr
4fr 2
Path loss for isotropic antennae

L dB 32.44 20 log10 f MH 20 log10 d km
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Observations:
path loss d-2
higher loss for higher f
Propagation Over a Reflecting Surface

One direct path and one ground reflection
ht
hr
d
Approximation for perfect reflections and d >> hT, hR

Pr
ht hr
Gr Gt
2
Pt
d
For isotropic antennae

L dB 40 log10 d 20 log10 ht 20 log10 hr
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Observations:
path loss d-4
double ht 6 dB gain
Diffraction Loss
Fresnel zones
the space bounded by an ellipsoid, which has the foci at the transmitter
and receiver
Fresnel zone n
d+n/2
Fresnel zone n+1
nth Fresnel zone:
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path transmitter receiver via any point on the ellipse is n/2 longer than d
shadowing occurs if an obstruction lies within the first Fresnel zone
Knife Edge Diffraction

F1
Location of Fresnel zones

distance direct path to nth Fresnel zone
Rn
nd1d 2
d1 d 2
for point-to-point links most 1st Fresnel

zone should be clear (at least 55 %)
diffraction parameter
vh
h
T
d1
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2 d1 d 2
d1d 2
R
d2
F3
d1
6 dB loss at h = 0
4
8
12
16
20
-2
d2
0
Path loss relative to free space (dB)
F2
-1
Fading
Global mean
Received Level
Long term fading
predicted using propagation models

due to shadowing (e.g. building
obstructing signal)
log-normal distribution
local mean value
Variations due
to Rayleigh fading
Short term fading
due to scatterers nearby

Rayleigh distribution (if no direct
path)
Rician distribution (direct + reflected
components)
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Variations due
to shadowing
Local mean
Glo bal mean
distance
Short Term Fading
Received signal is a combination of several reflected components multipath components
each multipath wave has

different phase
combination of signal components in phase
strengthening of composite signal
combination of signal components out of phase
weakening of composite signal
worst case: zero
+
if mobile and surroundings are stationary
signal strength constant
=
if mobile or surroundings move
signal strength varies
the radius of the region in which active scatterers affecting received
signal can be found is roughly 100 wavelengths
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Short Term Fading

Receiving Level P
Rayleigh fading
Pm
Pm
Fading margin
e d ia n
in
P
Area representing the probability P(P<Pmin)
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Frequency Selectivity
Different frequencies different fading conditions
frequency hopping provides diversity
Coherence bandwidth
range of frequencies which are affected about the same way by the
channel
Fading - short term
Channel bandwidth
(wideband system)
Channel bandwidth
(narrowband system)
Flat fading
Frequency
Frequency selective fading
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BER vs. S/N with Rayleigh Fading

With Rayleigh fading required S/N increases for a given BER
BER
10-1
Flat Rayleigh
fading
10-2
No
fading
10-3
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GMSK
demodulator,
BT = 3
Synchronous
demodulator
12
18
24
S/N
Long Term Fading

Caused by shadowing
buildings, trees etc.
Distribution has been determined from measurements
log-normal distribution
x m 2
1
p xdB
exp
2
2
2
m mean value median value local mean
standard deviation
determined by ,
Shadowing
Typical values
Urban:
7 dB
Suburban: 6 dB
Rural:
5 dB
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Long Term Fading

R e c e iv in g L e v e l P
Pr
Median level determined

from predictions
P r mean
Pr median
Log-normal
distribution
P(P ) r
Fading margin
P r min
Area representing the probability P(Pr<Prmin)

At cell edge: Cell Edge Location Probability
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in
Can be described by either

Cell edge location probability, or
Area coverage probability
Cell edge location probability
probability that at cell edge signal will

be greater than or equal to a specified
value
determines fade margin (FM)
Received level
Quality of Service
Min RxLev_(x % loc. prob.)
FM
Min RxLev_median
Distance
Cell edge
FM
Min_Rx_Level (x% loc. prob.) = Min_Rx_Level_median + z(x%) * standard deviation
z is taken from tables for the normal

distribution function
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Log-Normal Distribution
Normalised table (m = 0, = 1)
-1.00
-0.95
-0.90
-0.85
-0.80
-0.75
-0.70
-0.65
-0.60
-0.55
-0.50
-0.45
-0.40
-0.35
-0.30
-0.25
-0.20
-0.15
-0.10
-0.5
-0.00
0.05
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15.87 %
17.11 %
18.41 %
19.77 %
21.19 %
22.66 %
24.20 %
25.78 %
27.43 %
29.12 %
30.85 %
32.64 %
34.46 %
36.32 %
38.21 %
40.13 %
42.07 %
44.04 %
46.02 %
48.01 %
50.00 %
51.99 %
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
1.10
1.15
53.98 %
55.96 %
57.93 %
59.87 %
61.79 %
63.68 %
65.54 %
67.36 %
69.15 %
70.88 %
72.57 %
74.22 %
75.80 %
77.34 %
78.81 %
80.23 %
81.59 %
82.89 %
84.13 %
85.31 %
86.43 %
87.49 %
1.20
1.25
1.30
1.35
1.40
1.45
1.50
1.55
1.60
1.65
1.70
1.75
1.80
1.85
1.90
1.95
2.00
2.05
2.10
2.15
2.20
2.25
88.49 %
89.44 %
90.32 %
91.15 %
91.92 %
92.65 %
93.32 %
93.94 %
94.52 %
95.05 %
95.54 %
95.99 %
96.41 %
96.78 %
97.13 %
97.44 %
97.72 %
97.98 %
98.21 %
98.42 %
98.61 %
98.78 %
Cell edge
location
probability
Quality of Service
Area coverage probability
probability that the whole cell area has

sufficient coverage
can be derived from cell edge loc. prob.
Use Jakes curves
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ref. [4]
Cell edge
loc. prob.
Area cov.
prob.
Multipath Propagation (I)
Several reflected components of the same signal

example of channel impulse response
Received impulse
strength
Time Delay
Potential problem:
Intersymbol
interference (ISI)
Channel changes
as mobile moves
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Multipath Propagation (II)

Causes intersymbol interference
bitstreams received at different time shifts interfere with each other
Mean delay spread
measure of the dispersiveness of the channel

typical values (from Lee)
In-building
< 0.1 sec
Open area
< 0.2 sec
Suburban
0.5 sec
Urban
3 sec
Delay spread
GSM requirement: Should be able to handle time dispersion up to 16

sec
Solutions:
Related to
1
coherence Bc
2
bandwidth
equaliser (e.g. GSM), RAKE receiver (CDMA)
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Multipath Propagation (III)

dB
Rural Area
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
dB
10
15
20
Hilly Terrain
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
0
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10
15
20
Multipath Propagation (IV)

dB
Typical Urban
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
dB
10
15
20
Bad Urban
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
0
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10
15
20
Doppler Effect
Mobile moving relative to source
speed v
signal arrives at angle relative
to direction of movement
frequency will experience a
Doppler shift
f
In reality a spectrum of reflected

components
each with different Doppler shift

Frequency dispersive channel
v
cos
Doppler baseband spectrum example
maximum Doppler shift

fm
Transmitter
received frequency
f f m cos f c
Illustration of Doppler effect
Frequency shift positive or negative
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Macrocell Path Loss Models

General structure of most path loss models
L = A + B*log(d[km])
L: Loss in dB
B: propagation index (loss per decade), typical range 30-40
A: unit loss (at 1 km) d: distance MS - BS (km)
L(dB)
Slope B
A
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10
d (km)
Macrocell Models - GSM900 Band

Free Space Path Loss
L0=32.4+20*log(f[MHz])+20*log(d[km])
L0=91.72+20 *log(d[km]) for f=925MHz
Near the base station antenna Line of Sight (LOS) conditions
can be expected
near free space path loss conditions
Remote hill with LOS and no reflections or over water
near free space conditions
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Hata model for urban areas
Lurban=69.55 + 26.16* log(f[MHz]) - 13.82*log(HBS)-a(HMS) + {44.9 - 6.55*log(HBS)*log(d[km])
Lurban=147.14 - 13.82* log(HBS) - a(HMS) + {44.9-6.55*log(HBS)*log(d[km]) for f=925MHz
small city: a(HMS) = (1.1*logf[MHz] - 0.7)* (HMS) - (1.56*logf[MHz] - 0.8)
= 0 for HMS = 1.5m and f=925MHz
large city: a(HMS) = 3.2*(log(11.75*HMS))2-4.97
= 0 for HMS = 1.5m and f=925MHz
Lsuburban= Lurban- 2*(log(f[MHz/28))2 - 5.4
= Lurban- 10.0 for f=925MHz
Lquasi open= Lurban- 4.78*(log(f[MHz))2 + 18.33*log(f[MHz) - 35.94
= Lurban- 23.6 for f = 925MHz
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Adjustment factors,
or clutter factors

Validity range for the Hata model
f = 150 - 1500 MHz
not valid for GSM1800
HBS = 30 - 200 m
HMS = 1 - 10 m (typically 1.5 m)
d = 1 - 20 km
not valid for microcell
Valid for urban areas,
for other areas add correction factors
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e.g. suburban, forest, open area etc.

normally lower losses compared with urban
Lother area = Lurban + Kcl
Cell Range Calculation

From link budget, obtain max permissible path loss, Lmax
Rearrange the above formula to derive distance as a function of path

loss for urban area
d[km] = 10
For other areas the path losses have to be corrected by the clutter
factors, Kcl, i.e,
d[km] = 10
(Lmax - 147.14 +13.82 * log (HBS) + a(HMS) ) / (44.9 - 6.55 * log (HBS))
(Lmax -Kcl -147.14 +13.82 * log (HBS) + a(HMS) ) / (44.9 - 6.55 * log (HBS))
From this area per base station can be estimated
can estimate roughly the no. of BTSs to cover an area of a given type
PS! Max range for GSM (without extended
cell) = 35 km (due to timing advance)
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Cell Range Examples

km
Indoor Suburban
Indoor Urban
Indoor Dense Urban
3
2
1
0
Clutter factor
Dense urban
Urban
Suburban
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0
3
9.5
Frequency
900 MHz
Power of MS
Power of BS
% Cell border
Height BS
Combiner loss
2 W, Rx sens -102
50 W, Rx sens. -107
90 %
30 m
3.7 dB
Indoor loss
Div. Gain
7
7
6
20
20
15
4
4
3
Cell Coverage Area

Omni site
R
Site Coverage
3 3 2
R 2 .6 R 2
2
Site Coverage
9 3 2
R 1.95 R 2
8
Sectorised site
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Hata Model in Tornado/Planet Format

Tornado general propagation model
L=K1+K2log(d[m])+K3log(HBS-eff)+K4*Diffraction
+K5log(H BS-eff)log(d[m])+K6HMS-eff+Kclutter
factors K1, K2, K3 and K5 can be derived from the Hata model
simplify Hata model inserting the frequency and convert format to derive
K factors
PS! d is in meters for Tornado / Planet format
clutter correction factors must be specified separately

Tornado / Planet also calculate diffraction losses
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Macrocell Models - GSM1800/1900 Band

COST231-Hata model(GSM1800) for urban area
L=46.3+33.9* log(f[MHz])-13.82*log(HBS)-a(HMS)+{44.9-6.55*log(HBS)}*log(d[km])
L=156.65-13.82* log(HBS)-a(HMS)+{44.9-6.55*log(HBS)}*log(d[km]) for f=1800MHz
a(HMS) = 0 for HMS = 1.5m, f = 1800 MHz
Valid for f = 1500 - 2000 MHz (validity ranges for H BS, HMS and d are
the same as for Hata model)
Unit loss increases with frequency (about 10 dB higher than GSM),
decreases with BTS antenna height
Loss per decade is independent of frequency, decreases with BTS
antenna height
clutter factors will be different from GSM
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Cell Range (line of equal field strength)

km
1.5
Indoor Suburban
Indoor Urban
Indoor Dense Urban
Frequency
1800 MHz
Power of MS
Power of BS
% Cell border
Height BS
Combiner loss
0.5
0
Clutter factor
Dense urban
Urban
Suburban
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0
3
13
1 W, Rx sens -100
40 W, Rx sens. -107
90 %
30 m
3.9 dB
Indoor loss
7
7
6
20
20
15
Div. Gain
4
4
3
Microcell Models
Objective: High capacity by large number of cells serving a
given area with high frequency reuse

Typical diameter of microcell: 200-400 m
BTS antenna typically mounted below roof tops
Two main type of coverage
line-of-sight (LOS) - free space propagation and reflection

non line-of-sight (NLOS) inside road - diffraction mainly around
corners and to some extent around roof tops
Path loss in the Tornado tool is based on vector street data

New models available using 3-D array tracing
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Walfisch-Ikegami Model
Valid for streets - canyon propagation
Compensates for building heights - no clutter correction factors
used
Base station
hbase
Mobile
hbase
hroof
hroof
valid for
f = 800 - 2000 MHz

hbase = 4 - 50 m
hmobile= 1 - 3 m
d = 0.02 - 5 km
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hmobile
If LOS between base and mobile
Lb 42.6 26 log (d) 20 log (f)
The rooftop-to-street diffraction and

scatter loss is given by:
-16.9-10 log (w) 10 log (f) 20 logh mobile Lstreet hroof hmobile
Lrts 0
0
Lrts
If no LOS
Lb L0 Lrts Lmsd
where,
where
(-10 ) 0.354
L0 = Free space loss

Lrts = Roof-top-to-street diffraction and
scatter loss
Lmsd = Multi screen loss
0 35
Lstreet 2.5 0.075( 35 ) 35 55

4 .0 0 .114 ( 55 ) 55 90
: Road orientation with respect to direct radio path
and:
The free space loss is given by:

F0 32.4 10 log (d) 20 log (f)
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hmobile= hroof - hmobile

hbase = hbase - hroof
The multi-screen diffraction loss

Lmsd( 1 ) ka kd log (d) kf log (f) 9 log (b)
Lmsd 0
0
Lmsd
b : building separation
for medium sized

f
kf -4 0.7(
-1 ) cities and suburban
925
centres with moderate
tree density
kf -4 1.5(
where:
18 log ( 1 hbase)
0
Lmsd( 1 )
54 0.8( hbase)
ka 54 0.8 hbase
0.5
54
18
kd
hbase
18
15
hroof
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hbase hroof
hbase hroof
d 0.5km
d 0.5km
hbase hroof
hbase hroof
hbase hroof
hbase hroof
hbase hroof
f
-1 )
925
for metropolitan centres
COST231 Outdoor to Indoor Model

Outer wall We
Inner wall Wi
Valid for when the mobile is

inside the building and the BS is
outdoors-with line-of-sight from
base station to outer wall.
BS
L(dB) 32.4 20 log (f/GHz) 20 log (S d) We WGe( 1
where:
1 Wi p
D
2 (d-2 ) 1-
S
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D 2
) max (1 , 2 )
S
We = loss in the outer wall at =90 (dB)
WGe= extra loss in the outer wall at =0 (dB)
Wi = loss in the inner walls (dB)
= number of inner walls

= loss inwards in the building in dB/m,
used when there are no inner walls
COST231 Outdoor to Indoor Model

Typical figures:
W e:
4 - 10 dB, concrete with large windows: 7 dB
WGe: about 20 dB
Wi:
4 - 10 dB, concrete: 7 dB, wood: 4dB
about 0.6 dB/m
This model has shown good results. However, it is highly
dependent on parameter setting.

PS: Metal glazed windows will affect this strongly.
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CW Measurements
Objectives
Calibration the prediction model

Microcell planning without suitable prediction model
Verification of critical and borderline coverage areas
Measurements
Rayleigh-Fading should be averaged out (but not log-normal fading)

Lee criterion
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RMS error (dB)
Max sampling interval
0.5
0.28
1.0
1.11
1.5
2.50
2.0
4.44
Averaging intervals:
40 outdoor
20 indoor
CW Measurements
Equipment
1. Mobile GSM-receiver
system
2. Transmitter system
3. Evaluation system
GPS
Global positioning
system
Sig. gen
Receiver system
installed in a vehicle
Floppy with
measuring data
Rohde & Schwarz
LOC K
UN LOC K
Definition - evaluation system
SYS-55-3.DRW
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CW Measurements
Example of transmitter system:
Output power of power amplifier:
42.4 dBm
Attenuation of antenna 3/16 coax-cable: 4.0 dB
Gain of antenna:
8.0 dB
__________________________________________
Max. Radiated power of antenna (EiRP) : 46.4 dBm
G = 8 dBi
Test Transmitter
38.4 dBm
42.4 dBm
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46.4 dBm
CW Measurements
Criteria for good results
large number of measurement runs per site

sufficient number of test sites
measurements in all representative environments (clutter types)
measurements which deviate considerably should not be taken into
account if reason for deviation is known (e.g. underpass)
database (digitised maps) must represent environment accurately
avoid measurements near measuring equipment sensitivity limit
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CW Measurements
Calibration of the prediction model
Standard Propagation Model
Path loss = K1 + K2log(d) + K3log(heff) + K4Diffraction

+ K5log (Heff)log (d) + K6(Hmeff) + KCLUTTER
Task: Set appropriate values for K1, K2, K3, K4, K5, K6, KCLUTTER
Compare predicted values with measurements

Criterion: Minimise
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mean error
quadratic mean of the error (RMS value)
Block Diagram of the GSM Radio System

Transmitter
Traffic
or
control
channel
Block
encoder
Convolution
encoder
Interleaver
Encryption
Modulator
Radiochannel
Receiver
Block
decoder
Viterbidecoder
Deinterleaver
Decryption
Soft information
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Demodulator
Required Received level

Determining factor:
Frame Erasure Rate (FER) / Bit Error Rate (BER) requirements
Two cases:
A: System thermal noise limited
Low traffic areas (e.g. rural): No co-channel interference

Design according to maximum range constraints
RxLev > reference sensitivity level
B: System interference limited
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High traffic areas (e.g. urban)

Design according to interference constraints
RxLev > level determined by C/I criteria
Reference Sensitivity Performance
GSM Recommendation 05.05
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Reference Sensitivity Level (GSM)

Various levels specified by the GSM standards
Normal BTS (GSM900 and GSM1800):

GSM1800 MS (class 1,2):
GSM1800 MS (class 3):
GSM900 small MS:
Other GSM900 MS:
-104 dBm (minimum requirement)

-100 dBm (most common)
-102 dBm
-102 dBm (most common)
-104 dBm
Degradation of sensitivity level in presence of interference
RSL = RSL0 + IDM
IDM = Interference Degradation Margin

RSL0 = reference sensitivity level without interference
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Reference Sensitivity Level (GSM)

RxSenBS
C
/N
F
B
N0
RxSen
RxSenBS
BS
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- 121 dBm
Source: D. Haberer
== N
N00 ++ 10
10 log
log B
B ++ CC//NN ++ FF
== -121
-121 dBm
dBm ++ CC//NN ++ FF
RxSenBS:
RxSensitivity
BTS
N 0:
noise power density
B:
receiver noise
bandwidth
C/N:
signal / noise-ratio
F:
receiver noise figure
Example I
BTS receiver noise figure (F): 8 dB (from GSM specifications,
SBS is better)
Receiver noise bandwidth: B = 200 kHz = 53 dBHz
BTS receiver noise level:
kT0 (dBm/Hz) + B (dBHz) + F (dB)

= -174 dBm/Hz + 53 dBHz + 8 dB = -113 dBm
k = Boltzmanns constant
T0 = absolute temperature
Carrier to noise and interference:
10log{C/(N+I)} > 9dB (basic system requirement)
Assume C/I is large and C/N = 9 dB
C (BTS) = -113 + 9 = -104 dBm = RSL 0
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Example II
Requirement
10log{C/(N+I)} > 9 dB
C = received carrier power

N = received noise power
I = received interference power
Consider 2 cases
1. No interference, I = 0 => C/N > 9 dB
IDM = 0 dB
2. C/I = 12 dB => C/N > 12 dB
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=> C/(N+I) > 9 dB
IDM = 3 dB
Factors Affecting Receiver Sensitivity

Noise figure
depends on equipment quality
state of the art is much better than 8 dB
PS! When comparing

receiver sensitivity figures
Diversity included?
Some suppliers state receiver sensitivities including diversity gain (e.g.

4 dB)
C/N and C/I required
9 dB is a conservative figure - includes effect of Raileigh fading

can be reduced significantly if one assumes stationary subscriber
located in a non-faded location
GPRS / HSCSD: Sacrifice coding security for enhanced capacity
require higher C/N and C/I
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Diversity
Principle: Redundancy by receiving replicas of the same
signal which have been affected differently by the propagation

medium
Purpose: Combat fading
Several methods are possible:
frequency diversity
multipath diversity
antenna space diversity
antenna polarisation diversity
angle of arrival diversity
time diversity
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Frequency Diversity
Fading
GSM: Frequency hopping

CDMA: Wide BW
Frequency
Time
Frequency
CDMA
GSM Frequency hopping bandwidth
ICN PLM CA NP
Multipath Diversity
GSM
Equalizer collects any available
signal energy
Equalizer provides reliable
multipath diversity
CIR
Time
CDMA
Path diversity
Rake receiver collects only a part

of total signal energy
Reduced rake efficiency for long
significant CIR
Reduced capacity in the uplink
due to reduced rake receiver
efficiency
ICN PLM CA NP
3 finger rake
receiver
collected energy
total energy
rake receiver
= efficiency
is limited to
70 % ... 90 %
Antenna Space Diversity
provided spacing between antennas is

sufficient, signals received at the two
branches will experience nearly
uncorrelated fading
the chances of both signals being
faded simultaneously are small
Diversity gain
Efficiency depends on the combining

technique
ICN PLM CA NP
Typical > 10
Diversity
Combiner
Rx ant. 2
Nearly uncorrelated fading

Rx ant. 1
Diversity Combining Techniques

Selection
Combining
Equal Gain
Combining
Maximal Ratio
Combining
Branch 1 Branch 2
Branch 1 Branch 2
Branch 1 Branch 2
Select only one

branch at a time
The one with
highest signal to
noise ratio (SNR)
preferred
ICN PLM CA NP
Signals are simply

added
If one branch has
very poor SNR
this can degrade
performance
compared with
best input
W1
W2
Signals are
weighted
according to SNR
and then added
Best performance
with uncorrelated
noise
Link Budget
Downlink (BTS ---> MS):
TX-Power (EiRP)
Pa
th
lo
s
sL
BTS
RX-Sensitivity
S
IE M
M en
E N
Sp e i ch e rn
GSM
MS
Uplink (MS --> BTS):
RX-Sensitivity
Pa
th
lo
ss
TX-Power (EiRP)
BTS
S
IE M
Me n
E N
S p e i c h er n
GSM
MS
Balance Condition: Luplink = Ldownlink

ICN PLM CA NP
Maximum Path Loss

Definition:
Maximum allowed attenuation between transmitter (Tx) and receiver

(Rx) to obtain the specified grade of quality
Calculation
Lmax = TX_Power - RX_Sensitivity
Example: Lmax = 40dBm - (-100dBm)

Lmax = 140dB
TX_Power = EiRP (effective isotropic radiated power)

P[dBm] = 10*log(P[mW])
ICN PLM CA NP
Transmitting End
Downlink (A)
EiRP = BS_Power_Output - PA_Back Off - Total_Combiner_and_Duplex_Loss
- TX_Antenna_Cable_Loss + TX_Antenna_Gain
TRX
Combiner
Cable
Back
of
Example: EiRP = 47dBm - 0dB - 2dB - 3dB + 15dBi = 57 dBm
ICN PLM CA NP
TX-Antenna
Receiving End
Downlink (B)
RX_Sensitivity = Min_RX_Level_50%_loc._prob.
Min_RX_Level_median = Sensitivity_Level + RX_Antenna_Cable_Loss Frequency_Hopping_Gain

- RX_Antenna_Gain + Interference_degradation_margin + Body_Loss
Carrier
RX-Antenna
MS
S IE M
M e n
E N
Cable
S pe i c he r n
GSM
Interferer
Example: Min_RX_Level_median = -102dBm + 0dB - 0dB - 0dBi + 3dB + 3dB = -96dBm
ICN PLM CA NP
Transmitting End
Uplink (A)
EiRP = MS_Power_Output - TX_Antenna_Cable_Loss + TX_Antenna_Gain
S IE M
M en
E N
Sp ei c h e rn
GSM
MS
Cable
Example: EiRP = 33dBm - 0dB + 0dBi = 33dBm = 2W
ICN PLM CA NP
TX-Antenna
Receiving End
Uplink (B)
Min_RX_Level_median = Sensitivity_Level - Frequency_Hopping_Gain + RX_Antenna_Cable_Loss
- Tower_Mounted_Pre-Ampliufier_Gain - RX_Antenna_Gain - Antenna_Diversity_Gain
+ Interference_degradation_margin + Body_Loss
RX1-Antenna
TMPA
Cable
Carrier
RX2-Antenna
BTS
TMPA
Cable
Interferer
Example: Min_RX_Level_median = -109dBm - 0dB + 3dB - 0dB - 15dBi - 4dB + 3dB + 3dB = -119dBm
ICN PLM CA NP
Link Budget - Maximum Path Loss

Uplink / downlink
Lmax = EiRP - Min_RX_Level_median
Example:
Lmaxdownlink = 57 dBm - (-96 dBm) = 153 dB
Lmaxuplink
= 33 dBm - (-119 dBm) = 152 dB
Unbalanced System
Downlink stronger than uplink by 1 dB
ICN PLM CA NP
Data Applications (HSCSD / GPRS)

Data applications in general require better received signal
levels than voice applications
higher requirements for BER / FER

better C/N and C/I needed to satisfy BER / FER requirements
receiver sensitivity stated by supplier is sufficient to achieve
requirements
For HSCSD / GPRS less efficient channel coding schemes are
used in order to enhance bit rates
better signal to S/N and S/I needed for a given BER / FER
the system will have worse receiver sensitivity
HSCSD / GPRS: Need correction factors for link budget!

ICN PLM CA NP
Link Budget for GPRS
Same link budget as for other applications may be used, except
correction factors as shown below

GSM 900
Coding
Channel model
Scheme
TU50/ no
TU50/
HT100/ no FH
FH
ideal FH
CS1
0 dB
0 dB
1 dB
CS2
4 dB
3 dB
5 dB
GSM 1800
Coding
Channel model
Scheme
TU50/ no
TU50/
HT100/ no FH
FH
ideal FH
CS1
0 dB
0 dB
1 dB
CS2
4 dB
4 dB
5 dB
Note: This table is based on GSM05.05 ver. 7.0.0, table 1a
Only gradual degradation of

performance as received
signal goes below minimum
requirement. Therefore
communication may still be
possible at voice cell border
body loss (typically 3 dB) may be omitted

Note! Link budget in some cases better for GPRS than for voice
ICN PLM CA NP
Link Budget for HSCSD
Same link budget as for other applications may be used, except
correction factors as shown below

GSM 900 and GSM 1800
Bearer mode
Channel model
Transparent
TU50/ no FH
TU50/ ideal FH
TCH/F14.4, BER = 2.5% (note 1)
0 dB
0 dB
TCH/F14.4, BER = 0.5% (note 2)
2 dB
2 dB
TCH/F9.6, BER = 0.5% (note 2)
0 dB
0 dB
-4
TCH/F14.4, BER = 10 (notes 3, 4)
5 dB
5 dB
-4
TCH/F9.6, BER = 10 (notes 3, 4)
3 dB
3 dB
-4
TCH/F4.8, BER = 10 (notes 3, 4)
0 dB
0 dB
Non-transparent
TCH/F14.4, 90% of max. throughput
3 dB
3 dB
1 dB
1 dB
< 0 dB
< 0 dB
Note: This table is based on information contained in Tdoc SMG2 176/97
Note 1: BER performance of TCH/F14.4 at reference signal level
Note 4: Certain real time applications operated on a transparent HSCSD
bearer may require such BER values, e.g. video
again body loss may be omitted
ICN PLM CA NP
More rapid degradation of

performance as received
signal goes below minimum
requirement than for GPRS.
At voice cell border
TCH/F14.4 throughput will
be less than for TCH/F9.6
Fade Margin
Previous analysis for cell edge location probability of 50 %
Add fade margin to increase confidence level
Cell Edge
Area
Loc. Prob. Coverage
(%)
Prob. (%)
FM (dB)
= 5 dB
FM (dB)
= 6 dB
FM (dB)
= 7 dB
50
77
75
92
3.5
4.2
4.9
90
97
6.5
7.8
9.1
95
99
8.3
9.9
11.6
Propagation index = 3.5
ICN PLM CA NP
Indoor / In-car Penetration Losses
Procedure
Calculate composite standard

deviation
2
outdoor
2
indoor
outdoor = 6 dB
cell edge loc. Prob. = 90 %
then
total = 9.2 dB
from table
FM = 9.2 x 1.3 = 12 dB
total loss = 15 + 12 = 27 dB
Note:
Calculate FM for outdoor

Add indoor penetration loss
ICN PLM CA NP
Calculate composite fading

margin
Add median penetration loss
Alternative:
median penetration loss 15 dB

indoor = 7 dB
median penetration loss

standard deviation in-building
indoor and outdoor outdoor
total
Example
Needed parameters
FM outdoor = 6 x 1.3 = 7.8 dB

indoor penetration loss
= 27 - 7.8 = 19.2 dB
Feeder Losses
Example figures
PS! Cable losses depend on manufacturer

valid for GSM900
Feeder Type
Feeder length in m
Jumper
1/2"
7/8"
1 1/4"
1 5/8"
13,8
35,7
62,5
73,5
96,1
Feeder Loss
(dB/m)
0,18
0,070
0,040
0,034
0,026
Nominal connector loss is 0.1 dB per connector
ICN PLM CA NP
Feeder Losses
Calculation Example
7/8" cable 63m:
Loss each connector 0,1 dB
2 connectors jumper antenna-feeder
2 connectors jumper E. M. P. protection
2 connectors feeder
Total 6 connectors
0,1 dB x 6 connector
Jumper cable 1m + 1,5m = 2,5m
0,18 dB x 2,5m
Feeder loss 7/8" 0,040 dB x 70m
0,60 dB
=
=
0,45 dB
2,80 dB
3,85 dB
Source: Erring
3,85 dB is very high high. Reduce by changing feeder to 1 1/4"
ICN PLM CA NP
Link Budget - Example Calculation
Equipment parameters
Transmitting end
Mean output power over burst
"
Combiner/duplexer loss (DUCOM 4:1)
TX antenna cable loss
TX antenna gain
Frequency hop. gain
TX power reduction
EIRP
Receiving end
Receiver sensitivity
Combiner/duplex loss
Correction factor - GPRS / HSCSD
RX antenna gain
RX antenna cable loss
Antenna diversity gain
Frequency hop. gain
Min rec. level (50% cell edge loc. prob.)
ICN PLM CA NP
Downlink
(BTS)
50.0
47.0
5.2
3.0
18.5
0.0
0.0
57.3
(Mobile)
-102.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
n.a.
0.0
-102.0
Uplink
(Mobile)
2.0
33.0
n.a.
0.0
0.0
0.0
n.a.
33.0
(BTS)
-109.0
1.4
0.0
18.5
3.0
4.0
0.0
-127.1
Unit
W
dBm
dB
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dBm
dBm
dB
dBi
dB
dB
dB
dBm
Link Budget - Example Calculation

Environmental influences and Final Link Budget
ICN PLM CA NP
Miscellaneous
Inteference implementation margin
Body loss
Fade Margin - urban
(75% cell edge location probability)
In-car penetration loss
Indoor penetration loss - suburban
Indoor penetration loss - urban
3.0
3.0
5.0
3.0
3.0
5.0
dB
dB
dB
7.0
15.0
20.0
7.0
15.0
20.0
dB
dB
dB
Link budget (outdoor coverage)

Max path loss (50%)
Max path loss (75%)
153.3
148.3
154.1
149.1
dB
dB
Link budget (in-car coverage)

Max path loss (50%)
Max path loss (75%)
146.3
141.3
147.1
142.1
dB
dB
Link budget (indoor cov - suburb)

Max path loss (50%)
Max path loss (75%)
138.3
133.3
139.1
134.1
dB
dB
Link budget (indoor cov - urban)

Max path loss (50%)
Max path loss (75%)
133.3
128.3
134.1
129.1
dB
dB
Hierarchical Cell Structures

Scenario
Ls
Indoor coverage
Outdoor Installation
Hotspot
Parking lot
Contiguous Microcellular Coverage
Subway Coverage Extension

ICN PLM CA NP
HCS for Additional Coverage

Umbrella cells
very dominant positions

for fast moving mobiles /
users in coverage holes
push traffic to
lower layers
Macro
if
Macro- -Cells
Cells
possible
Speed sensitive
handovers
Umbrella Cell
Uncovered spots in the Macro Cell Layer

ICN PLM CA NP
HCS for Additional Coverage

Microcells
high traffic locations, e.g. football stations, underground stations,

business buildings, exhibition halls, shopping malls
improve indoor coverage
Speed sensitive
pedestrians / slow moving
handovers
push traffic to lower
layers if possible
Micro
Micro Macro - Cell
Macro - Cell
ICN PLM CA NP
Indoor Coverage Solutions

Outdoor BTS near important building(s)
Combined indoor / outdoor site
Indoor Repeater
Micro BTS
Coaxial antenna feeder network
Fibre optical antenna feeder network
Pico BTS
Leaky cable
ICN PLM CA NP
Outdoor BTS Near Important Building(s)
BTS
Direct one antenna to the building(s)

Traffic shared between indoor and outdoor
No dedicated traffic for the building
Difficult to cover top floors in urban areas
ICN PLM CA NP
Combined Indoor / Outdoor Site

1
sector dedicated
for indoor coverage
Other sectors for
BT
S
for indoor coverage

possible (as
described below)
outdoor coverage
Distributed
indoor
antennas
ICN PLM CA NP
Various solutions
Indoor Repeater
Easy installation
No transmission
a temporary
Cost effective
solution
No extra traffic
May be used as
offered
Amplified
signals
ICN PLM CA NP
BT
S
Micro BTS
Small and non-intrusive
Transmission required
Extra traffic offered
Traffic limited to small

areas (limited trunking gain)
BTS
BTS
BTS
ICN PLM CA NP
Coaxial Feeder Network

Better dynamic capacity
Reduce no. of BTSs
Low cost
Limited feeder lengths
BTS
BTS
Bidir.
Ampl.
BTS
BTS
Antenna system
BTS
Antenna system
Single BTS
Cascaded BTSs
ICN PLM CA NP
Optical Fibre Repeater
Good dynamic capacity
Reduce no. of BTSs
Antenna
Antenna
Long feeders possible
Relatively expensive
Antenna
Antenna
Antenna
Fibre-optic repeater
Antenna
Antenna
Antenna
Base Station
Fibre Optic Master Unit

Antenna
May be used with
Antenna
2way
splitter
a normal repeater
ICN PLM CA NP
Pico BTS
Corporate network
RF-Agent
LE
ISUP
S2M
LE
PSTN
INAP
PABX
S2M
VPN
Database
SCP
*)
CAP
Pico-Server #)
Abis
Asub
BSC
ISUP
TRAU
MSC
SSP
PLMN
HLR
ICN PLM CA NP
MSC
Leaky Cable
Alternative to distributed antennas
Often used for tunnels

(e.g. railways)
Can be used for some indoor

applications (e.g.elevator shafts)
Normally too expensive
BTS
ICN PLM CA NP
Backup Slides
ICN PLM CA NP

Converting Hatas formula, the following constants are
derived (one piece model)
K1 = -12.8
K2 = -44.9
K3 = -5.8
K5 = 6.55
Also,
K4=Multiplying factor for diffraction loss prediction (typically 0.5-0.7

depending on terrain undulations)
K6 = 0 (not used)
ICN PLM CA NP

Eff. Antenna height(HBS-eff)
normally base height(slope height only in special cases, when BTS

is on mountain or in a valley)
Some typical clutter correction factors
dense urban(metropolitan,10 floors,narrow roads)

normal urban
suburban (4-5 floors, medium to wide roads)
village
forest (tropical)
quasi open (bushes, single small houses)
open
ICN PLM CA NP
0 dB
3 dB
8 - 11 dB
14 - 17 dB
3 - 6 dB
18 - 22 dB
25 dB
COST231-Hata Model in Tornado Format

Converting the Cost-231-Hata formula, the following
constants are derived (one piece model):
K1 = -25
K2 = -44.9
K3 = -5.8
K5 = 6.55
Also,
K4 = Multiplying factor for diffraction loss prediction (typically 0.5 0.7 depending on terrain undulations)
K6 = 0 (not used)
ICN PLM CA NP
COST231-Hata Model in Tornado Format

Eff. Antenna height (HBS-eff)
normally base height(slope height only in special cases, when BTS

is on mountain or in a valley)
Some typical clutter correction factors
dense urban (metropolitan,10 floors,narrow roads) 0 dB

normal urban
3 dB
suburban (4-5 floors, medium to wide roads)
11 - 15 dB
village (open type
16 - 20 dB
forest (tropical)
5 - 10 dB
quasi open (bushes, single small houses)
20 - 27 dB
open (flat)
25 - 30 dB
ICN PLM CA NP
Ericsson Microcell Model
Outdoors-no line-of-sight
Simple recursive model valid in city streets where houses are
much higher than the antennas.See figure below.Nodes(j=0,j=1
etc.) are at TX and RX as well as break points caused by street
corners.
d1
Tx
j=0
ICN PLM CA NP
S0
q1
j=1
a1
S1
j=2
d2
q2
S3
a2
Sn=physical distance between node points

an=angle between streets
j=3 Rx
Ericsson Microcell Model

The propagation loss is given by the recursive expression
4d n
L(dB) 20 log
where dn = imaginary distance between Rx and Tx given by

kj kj-1 dj-1qj-1
dj kjsj-1 dj-1
The initial values are k1=1 and d0=0
q is a parameter which depends on a. For a = 90, q = 0.5.

The model may be adapted to special situations and expanded.
ICN PLM CA NP
Block Encoding / Decoding - GSM

Can be used both for detecting and correcting bit errors
The ability to detect errors is greater than the ability to correct
them
The 50 most important bits in each speech block are blockencoded
(53,50) block code - only used for error detection

can detect at least one bit error (in most cases also two)
FACCH, SACCH, BCCH, PCH, AGCH, SDCCH use Fire code

special shortened (224, 184) cyclic block code
can correct bit error bursts of up to 12 bits
can detect all error patterns which are not code words
ICN PLM CA NP
Block Encoding / Decoding

Example of a cyclic, systematic (7,4) block code
d3 d2 d1 d0 p2 p1 p0
dn = databits (the actual information is contained in 4 databits)
pn = parity bits, e.g.
p0 = d0 d2 d3, p1 = d0 d1 d2, p2 = d1 d2 d3
one code word consists of 7 coded bits

only some code word combinations are allowed
error correction capability t < (dmin-1)/2 (in this case 1)
dmin = the minimum distance of the code (in this case 3)
ICN PLM CA NP
Convolutional Coding / Viterbi Decoding

Convolutional coding
Based on continuous data sequence (not data blocks)

The coder has a memory of previous databits (shift registers)
Different convolutional coders used for different channels
Example of a simple convolutional encoder
Bit sequence in
ICN PLM CA NP
Shift
reg
Shift
reg
Coded sequence out
Convolutional Coding / Viterbi Decoding

Decoded using the Viterbi algorithm (Maximum Likelihood
Sequence Decoding)
Decode sequences of bits, not individual bits

Compare the received sequence with allowed sequences
Choose the allowed sequence which looks most like the received
sequence => the sequence with minimum distance from received seq.
Illustration: Calculate the shortest route: London - Vienna
London
10
Amsterdam 9
10
Paris
ICN PLM CA NP
Munich
13
7
8
Vienna
Basel
Interleaving and Deinterleaving

Rayleigh fading => bursts of bit errors
Error correction cannot cope
b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8
Write to
memory
row by
row
Mix up order of bits before transmission,
put them back in order in the receiver
bursts of errors will be spread out in time

error correction coder may cope (especially if
channel changes fast)
works better if user moves fast (channel
changes fast) than if he moves slowly (channel
nearly stationary)
disadvantage: Interleaver causes time delay
ICN PLM CA NP
Read out column

by column
b9 b10b11b12b13b14b15b16
b17b18b19b20b21b22b23b24
b25b26b27b28b29b30b31b32
b33b34b35b36b37b38b39b40
b41b42b43b44b45b46b47b48
b49b50b51b52b53b54b55b56
b57b58b59b60b61b62b63b64
Modulation / Demodulation
GMSK (Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying) modulation
constant amplitude => can use class C amplifier

Gaussian frequency and impulse response filter
good compromise between bandwidth and pulse duration in time
BT = 0.3
Viterbi algorithm detector
can handle multipath dispersion up to 16 microseconds
Training sequence used for channel estimation and
synchronisation
ICN PLM CA NP
Noise Figure Reduction

Consider amplifiers in cascade with gain Ki and noise figure
Fi
From antenna
K1, F1
K2, F2
K3, F3
...
Overall noise figure of system:

Ftot = F1 + (F2-1)/K1 + (F3-1)/(K1K2)
Conclusion:
By using low noise pre-amplifier (LNA) with small F 1 and large K1 the
overall noise figure of the system is reduced (dominated by F 1)
ICN PLM CA NP

Coverage Planning: Icn PLM Ca NP

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s

SIEMENS Limited 1999

SIEMENS Limited 1999

Main Topics (continued)

SIEMENS Limited 1999

Radio Network Design Objectives

Coverage area per base station site

Minimise network cost

Coverage class within the radio cell

Maximise service quality

Maximise service quality

Within available frequency spectrum

SIEMENS Limited 1999

The Mobile Radio Channel

SIEMENS Limited 1999

Free Space Propagation

power density decreases with distance

isotropic receiving antenna with aperture A (A=2/(4)) will receive

Assume transmitting and receiving antennae Gt and Gr respectively

Path loss for isotropic antennae

SIEMENS Limited 1999

Propagation Over a Reflecting Surface

Approximation for perfect reflections and d >> hT, hR

For isotropic antennae

SIEMENS Limited 1999

Fresnel zone n+1

nth Fresnel zone:

SIEMENS Limited 1999

Knife Edge Diffraction

Location of Fresnel zones

for point-to-point links most 1st Fresnel

Long term fading

predicted using propagation models

Short term fading

due to scatterers nearby

SIEMENS Limited 1999

Short Term Fading

Received signal is a combination of several reflected components multipath components

each multipath wave has

worst case: zero

SIEMENS Limited 1999

Short Term Fading

SIEMENS Limited 1999

frequency hopping provides diversity

SIEMENS Limited 1999

BER vs. S/N with Rayleigh Fading

SIEMENS Limited 1999

Long Term Fading

buildings, trees etc.

Distribution has been determined from measurements

m mean value median value local mean

SIEMENS Limited 1999

Long Term Fading

Median level determined

Area representing the probability P(Pr<Prmin)

SIEMENS Limited 1999

Can be described by either

probability that at cell edge signal will

Min RxLev_(x % loc. prob.)

Min_Rx_Level (x% loc. prob.) = Min_Rx_Level_median + z(x%) * standard deviation

z is taken from tables for the normal

SIEMENS Limited 1999

SIEMENS Limited 1999