Manufacturing Engineering Fundamentals of Machining

Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
Machining Processes and Machine Tools

1. Fundamentals of Machining
2. Cutting-Tool Materials and Cutting Fluids
3. Machining Processes used to Produce Round
Shapes: Turning and Hole Making
4. Machining Processes used to Produced
Various Shapes: Milling, Broaching, Sawing
and Filing; Gear Manufacturing
5. Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations
2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd
Chapter Objectives
How chips are produced during machining.

Force and power requirements in machining.
Factors involved in temperature rise and its effects.
How cutting tools wear and fail.
Surface finish and integrity of parts produced by
machining.
Machinability of materials.
Chapter Outline
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mechanics of Cutting
Cutting Forces and Power
Temperatures in Cutting
Tool Life: Wear and Failure
Surface Finish and Integrity Machinability
Introduction
1.
2.
3.
4.
Cutting processes remove material from the surface of

a workpiece by producing chips. Common cutting
processes are as follow:
Turning, in which the workpiece is rotated and a
cutting tool removes a layer of material as it moves to
the left.
Cutting-off operation, where the cutting tool moves
radially inward and separates the right piece from the
bulk of the blank.
Slab-milling operation, in which a rotating cutting tool
removes a layer of material from the surface of the
workpiece.
End-milling operation, in which a rotating cutter
travels along a certain depth in the workpiece and
produces a cavity.
Introduction
Examples of common machining operations.
Introduction
Schematic illustration of the turning operation
showing various features.
Introduction
(a) Orthogonal cutting with a

well-defined shear plane, also
known as the Merchant model.
Note that the tool shape,
depth of cut, and the cutting
speed, V, are all independent
variables: (b) Orthogonal
cutting without a well-defined
shear plane.
Dependent variables in cutting are those that are
influenced by changes in the independent variables
listed above, and include:
(a) type of chip produced
(b) force and energy dissipated during cutting
(c) temperature rise in the workpiece, the tool, and the chip
(d) tool wear and failure
(e) surface finish and surface integrity of the workpiece.
A typical question posed is which of the independent
variables should be changed first, and to what extent,
if
(a) the surface finish of the workpiece being cut is
poor and unacceptable
(b) the cutting tool wears rapidly and becomes dull,
(c) the workpiece becomes very hot
(d) the tool begins to vibrate and chatter.
The simple model shown in Fig. 21.3a (referred as the

M.E. Merchant model, developed in the early 1940s) is
sufficient for our purposes.
This model is known as orthogonal cutting, because
it is two dimensional and the forces involved are
perpendicular to each other.
The cutting tool has a rake angle of (positive, as
shown in the figure) and a relief or clearance angle.
Microscopic examination of chips obtained in actual

machining operations have revealed that they are
produced by shearing , similar to the movement in a
deck of cards sliding against each other.
Shearing takes place along a shear zone (usually
along a well-defined plane referred to as the shear
plane) at an angle, (called the shear angle).
(a) shows the schematic illustration of the basic
mechanism of chip formation by shearing. (b) Velocity
diagram showing angular relationships among the
three speeds in the cutting zone.
Cutting Ratio
It can be seen that the chip thickness, t c, can be

determined by knowing the depth of cut, t o and and
.
The ratio of to / tc is known as the cutting ratio (or

chip-thickness ratio), r, and is related to the two angles
by the following relationships:
r cos
tan
1 r sin
to
sin
r
tc cos
21.1a
21.1b
Cutting Ratio
The reciprocal of r is known as the chipcompression ratio or factor and is thus a measure
of how thick the chip has become compared to the
depth of cut; hence, the chip-compression ratio
always is greater than unity.
The depth of cut also is referred to as the

undeformed chip thickness.
Shear Strain
The shear strain, , that the material undergoes

can be expressed as
AB AO OB
OC OC OC
cot tan
21.2
Note that large shear strains are associated with

low shear angles or with low or negative rake
angles.
Shear Strain
The shear angle has great significance in the

mechanics of cutting operations.
It influences force and power requirements,

chip thickness, and temperature.
This analysis yielded the expression

45
2 2
21.3
where is the friction angle and is related

to the coefficient of friction, at the toolchip
interface by the expression = tan .
21.2 Mechanics of Cutting
Shear Strain
Among the many shearangle relationships

developed, another useful formula that generally
is applicable is
45
21.4
The coefficient of friction in metal cutting

generally ranges from about 0.5 to 2, indicating
that the chip encounters considerable frictional
resistance while moving up the tools rake face.
Velocities in the cutting zone
Since mass continuity has to be maintained,

Vto Vctc
or
Vc Vr
V sin
21.5
Vc
cos
A velocity diagram also can be constructed, where

from trigonometric relationships, we obtain the
equationV
V
V
cos
cos
sin
21.6a
Velocities in the cutting zone
where Vs is the velocity at which shearing take place
in the
shear plane.
to Vc
21.6b
Note also that r
tc
These velocity relationships will be utilized further

when describing power requirements in cutting
operations.
Types of chips produced in metal cutting
1.
2.
3.
4.
The four main types are:

Continuous
Built-up edge
Serrated or segmented
Discontinuous
Continuous chips
Continuous chips usually are formed with

ductile materials, machined at high cutting
speeds and/or high rake angles.
The deformation of the material takes place
along a narrow shear zone called the primary
shear zone.
Continuous chips may develop a secondary
shear zone because of high friction at the tool
chip interface; this zone becomes thicker as
friction increases.
Continuous chips
Deformation in continuous chips also may take place

along a wide primary shear zone with curved
boundaries.
This problem can be alleviated with chip breakers (to

follow) or by changing parameters, such as cutting
speed, feed, depth of cut, and by using cutting fluids.
Built-up edge chips
A built-up edge (BUE) consists of layers of material from

the workpiece that gradually are deposited on the tool
tiphence the term built-up.
Built-up edge commonly is observed in practice.
It is a major factor that adversely affects surface finish,

however, a thin, stable BUE usually is regarded as
desirable because it reduces tool wear by protecting its
rake face.
Built-up edge chips
The tendency for BUE formation can be reduced by one

or more of the following means:
1. Increase the cutting speeds
2. Decrease the depth of cut
3. Increase the rake angle
4. Use a sharp tool
5. Use an effective cutting fluid
6. Use a cutting tool that has lower chemical affinity for
the workpiece material
Built-up edge chips
Serrated chips are semicontinuous chips with large

zones of low shear strain and small zones of high shear
strain, hence the latter zone is called shear localization.
Metals with low thermal conductivity and strength that

decreases sharply with temperature (thermal softening)
exhibit this behavior, most notably titanium.
Discontinuous chips
Discontinuous chips consist of segments that may be

attached firmly or loosely to each other.
Discontinuous chips usually form under the following

conditions:
1.
3.
Brittle workpiece materials, because they do not have

the capacity to undergo the high shear strains involved
in cutting.
Workpiece materials that contain hard inclusions and
impurities or have structures such as the graphite
flakes in gray cast iron.
Very low or very high cutting speeds
4.
5.
Large depths of cut.

Low rake angles.
2.
Discontinuous chips
4. Lack of an effective cutting fluid.
5. Low stiffness of the toolholder or the machine
tool, thus allowing vibration and chatter to
occur.
Because of the discontinuous nature of chip

formation, forces continually vary during
cutting.
Consequently, the stiffness or rigidity of the

cutting-tool holder, the workholding devices,
and the machine tool are important in cutting
with serrated chips as well as with discontinuous
chips.
(a)continuous ship
with a narrow,
straight primary shear
zone
(b) secondary shear

zone at the chip tool
interface
(c) continuous chip

with large primary
shear zone
(d) continuous chip

with built-up-edge
(e) segmented or
nonhomogeneous
chip
(f) discontinuous
chips
Chip Curl
In all cutting operations performed on metals, as well as

nonmetallic materials such as plastics and wood, chips
develop a curvature (chip curl) as they leave the workpiece
surface.
Among factors affecting the chip curl are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The distribution of stresses in the primary and

secondary shear zones.
Thermal effects.
Work-hardening characteristics of the workpiece
material.
The geometry of the cutting tool.
Cutting fluids.
Chip Curl
Generally, as the depth of cut decreases, the

radius of curvature decreases; that is, the chip
becomes curlier.
Also, cutting fluids can make chips become
more curly (the radius of curvature decreases),
thus reducing the toolchip contact area and
concentrating the heat closer to the tip of the
tool. As a result, tool wear increases.
Chip Breakers
Continuous and long

chips are undesirable
as they tend to
become entangled
and severely interfere
with machining
operations and also
become a potential
safety hazard.
Chip Breakers
Chip breakers have traditionally been a piece of metal

clamped to the tools rake face, which bend and break
the chip.
However, most modern cutting tools and inserts now

have built-in chip-breaker features of various designs.
Fig 21.8 shows the chips produced in turning: (a) tightly

curled chip; (b) chip hits workpiece and breaks; (c)
continuous chip moving radially away from workpiece;
and (d) chip hits tool shank and breaks off.
Chip Breakers
In interrupted-cutting operations (such as milling), chip
breakers generally are not necessary, since the chips already
have finite lengths.
Controlled contact on tools
Cutting tools can be designed so that the toolchip

contact length is reduced by recessing the rake face of
the tool some distance away from its tip.
This reduction in contact length affects chip-formation

mechanics.
Primarily, it reduces the cutting forces and, thus, the

energy and temperature.
Determination of an optimum length is important as too

small a contact length would concentrate the heat at
the tool tip, thus increasing wear.
Oblique cutting
The majority of machining operations involve tool

shapes that are three-dimensional, thus the cutting is
oblique.
Whereas in orthogonal cutting, the chip slides directly
up the face of the tool, in oblique cutting, the chip is
helical and at an angle i, called the inclination angle.
Fig 21.9(a) shows the schematic illustration of cutting
with an oblique tool. Note the direction of chip
movement. (b) Top view, showing the inclination angle,
i. (c) Types of chips produced with tools at increasing
inclination angles.
Single-point Tool
geometry
Back rake angle (ab)
ECEA
Nose radius(NR)
Side rake angle (as)

End relief angle (ERA)
Side relief angle (SRA)
Side cutting
edge angle (SCEA)
Nose radius
End cutting
edge angle(ECEA)
SCEA
ERA
SRA
Oblique cutting
Note that the chip in Fig. 21.9a flows up the rake

face of the tool at angle (chip flow angle), which
is measured in the plane of the tool face.
Angle i is the normal rake angle, and it is a
basic geometric property of the tool.
This is the angle between line oz normal to the
workpiece surface and line oa on the tool face.
The effective rake angle, e is
e sin sin i cos i sin i

1
21.7
Oblique cutting
Fig 21.10(a) shows the schematic illustration of a righthand cutting tool. The various angles on these tools and
their effects on machining.
Although these tools traditionally have been produced
from solid tool-steel bars, they have been replaced
largely with Fig 21.10(b) inserts made of carbides and
other materials of various shapes and sizes.
Oblique cutting
Oblique cutting
Shaving and skiving
Thin layers of material can be removed from straight or

curved surfaces by a process similar to the use of a
plane to shave wood.
Shaving is useful particularly in improving the surface

finish and dimensional accuracy of sheared parts and
punched slugs.
Knowledge of the cutting forces and power involved
in machining operations is important for the following
reasons:
Data on cutting forces is essential so that:
a. Machine tools can be properly designed to
minimize distortion of the machine components,
maintain the desired dimensional accuracy of
part and help select appropriate toolholders and
workholding devices.
b. The workpiece is capable of withstanding these
forces without excessive distortion.
Power requirements must be known in order to
enable the
selection of a machine tool with adequate electric
power.
Fig 21.11(a) shows the Forces acting in the cutting zone

during two-dimensional cutting. Note that the resultant
force, R, must be colinear to balance the forces. (b)
Force circle to determine various forces acting in the
cutting zone.
The thrust force, acts in a direction normal to

the cutting speed.
These two forces produce the resultant force, R,
as can be seen from the force circle.
Note that the resultant force can be resolved into
two components on the tool face: a friction
force, F, along the tool-chip interface and a
normal force, N, perpendicular to it. It can also
be shown that
F R sin
21.8a
N R cos
21.8b
Note also that the resultant force is balanced by

an equal and opposite force along the shear
plane and is resolved into a shear force, and a
normal force.
It can be shown that these forces can be
expressed as follows:
Fs Fc cos Ft sin
21.9
Fn Fc sin Ft cos
21.10
Because the area of the shear plane can be

calculated by knowing the shear angle and the
depth of cut, the shear and normal stresses in the
shear plane can be determined.
The ratio of F to N is the coefficient of friction,
, at the toolchip interface, and the angle is the
friction angle.
The magnitude of can be determined as
F Ft F ctan

N Fc Ft tan
21.11
Thrust force
A knowledge of the thrust force in cutting is

important because the tool holder, the
workholding devices, and the machine tool must
be sufficiently stiff to support this force with
minimal deflections.
We also can show the effect of rake angle and

friction angle on the direction of thrust force by
notingFfrom
Fig.
21.11b
R sin
that
21.12a
t
Ft Fc tan
21.12b
Power
Power is the product of force and velocity. Thus,

the power input in cutting is
21.13
Power Fc V
This power is dissipated mainly in the shear zone

(due to the energy required to shear the material)
and on the rake face of the tool (due to toolchip
interface friction).
ThePower
powerfor
dissipated
21is.14
shearing inF the
V shear plane
Power
Letting w be the width of cut, the specific energy

for shearing, us, is given by
FsVs
us
wtoV
21.15
Similarly, the power dissipated in friction is

21.16
Power for friction FVc
and the specific energy for friction, uf is
FVc
Fr
uf
wtoV wto
21.17
Power
The total specific energy, ut thus is
ut u s u f
21.18
Because of the many factors involved, reliable

prediction of cutting forces and power still is
based largely on experimental data, such as those
given in Table 21.2.
The sharpness of the tool tip also influences forces
and power. Because it rubs against the machined
surface and makes the deformation zone ahead of
the tool larger, duller tools require higher forces
and power.
Measuring cutting forces and power
Cutting forces can be measured using a force

transducer (typically with quartz piezoelectric
sensors), a dynamometer or a load cell (with
resistance-wire strain gages placed on octagonal rings)
mounted on the cutting-tool holder.
It is possible to calculate cutting force from the power

consumption during cutting, provided that the
mechanical efficiency of the machine tool is known or
can be determined.
Example 21.1 Relative energies in cutting
In an orthogonal cutting operation, to = 0.13 mm, V =

120 m/min, = 10 and the width of cut=6 mm. It is
observed that tc = 0.23 mm, Fc = 500 N and Ft = 200
N. Calculate the percentage of the total energy that
goes into overcoming friction at the tool-chip
interface.
Example 21.1 Relative energies in cutting
Solution
The percentage of the energy can be expressed as
Friction energy
Total energy
FVc
FcV
Fr
Fc
r tt 00..13
23 0.565
o
c
F R sin
Fc R cos
R Ft 2 Fc2 200 500 539 N
500 539cos 10
32
F 539 sin 32 286 N
286 0.565
Percentage
0.32 or 32%
500

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Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Machining Processes and Machine Tools

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

How chips are produced during machining.

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Cutting processes remove material from the surface of

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

(a) Orthogonal cutting with a

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

The simple model shown in Fig. 21.3a (referred as the

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Microscopic examination of chips obtained in actual

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

It can be seen that the chip thickness, t c, can be

The ratio of to / tc is known as the cutting ratio (or

The depth of cut also is referred to as the

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

The shear strain, , that the material undergoes

Note that large shear strains are associated with

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

The shear angle has great significance in the

It influences force and power requirements,

This analysis yielded the expression

where is the friction angle and is related

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Among the many shearangle relationships

The coefficient of friction in metal cutting

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Since mass continuity has to be maintained,

A velocity diagram also can be constructed, where

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

These velocity relationships will be utilized further

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

The four main types are:

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Continuous chips usually are formed with

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Deformation in continuous chips also may take place

This problem can be alleviated with chip breakers (to

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

A built-up edge (BUE) consists of layers of material from

Built-up edge commonly is observed in practice.

It is a major factor that adversely affects surface finish,

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

The tendency for BUE formation can be reduced by one

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Serrated chips are semicontinuous chips with large

Metals with low thermal conductivity and strength that

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Discontinuous chips consist of segments that may be

Discontinuous chips usually form under the following

Brittle workpiece materials, because they do not have

Large depths of cut.

2005 Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd

Because of the discontinuous nature of chip