MICROBIAL

GENETICS
By

Dr Said Abbadi
Professor of medical microbiology & Immunology

OUTCOMES
Bacterial genetic
Define genetics, genome, chromosome, gene, genetic code,
genotype, and phenotype
Describe the process of DNA replication
Explain the mechanisms of gene transfer in bacteria.
Name & define transposable genetic elements and plasmids
Describe the functions of transposable genetic elements and
plasmids
Name the components of transposable genetic elements and
plasmids
Define mutation

Genetic
Terminology

Genetics:

The science which defines and analyzes heredity.

Gene:
the unit of heredity, it is a segment of DNA that carries
information for a specific biochemical or physiologic property.

Bacterial genome:
the total set of genes present inside a bacterial cell. These genes
are carried on (mainly the chromosome):
1- Bacterial chromosome:
a double stranded circular DNA molecule that encodes up to 4000
genes necessary for bacterial growth & multiplication
There is no true nucleus in bacteria as they are prokaryotic cells,
a single chromosome is present in the cytoplasm as a nucleoid.
2- Plasmids
3- Transposable genetic elements
4- Prophage (bacteriophage DNA)

Structure and Function of

Genetic Material
DNA

& RNA
DNA=deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA=ribonucleic acid
Basic building blocks:
Nucleotides
Phosphate group
Pentose sugar
Nitrogenous base

Structure of DNA
Double stranded (double helix)
Chains of nucleotides
5 to 3 (strands are anti-parallel)
Complimentary base pairing
(nitrogenous groups)
A-T
G-C

DNA Structure

Phosphate-P
Sugar-blue
Bases-ATGC

The bacterial chromosome

The bacterial nucleoid is formed of a single
chromosome that is supercoiled in the cytoplasm.
Each chromosomal strand is formed of regularly
alternating phosphate and sugar groups.
Nitrogenous bases are attached to sugar groups.
The 2 strands are held together by hydrogen bonds
between complementary bases (A-T) and (C-G)

The average length of bacterial chromosome is 4000

5000 kbp (I mm long).

DNA Replication
Bacteria have a closed, circular DNA
The Bacterial chromosome replicates by semiconservative method of DNA replication:
-the 2 strands separate

- each strand act as a template to synthesize a

complementary strand by the action of polymerase
enzyme.
The bacterial chromosome follows the same rules of
gene expression and protein synthesis as higher cells

Genetic Code
DNA: triplet code
mRNA: codon (complimentary to
triplet code of DNA)

tRNA: anticodon (complimentary

to codon)

Protein Synthesis
DNA------ mRNA------ protein
transcription

translation

Plasmids
Plasmids are extra-chromosomal, circular, double stranded
DNA molecule dispersed in the cytoplasm.

They are much smaller than chromosome.

Plasmids are capable of replicating independently of the
bacterial chromosome.
Most plasmids encode properties that are not essential for
growth, replication or survival of bacterial cells
Functions exhibited by plasmids:
1- Plasmids with F factor mediate the process of conjugation.
2- Some carry genes for antibiotic resistance.
3- Virulence plasmids code for exotoxins, adhesion or invasion factors
4- Bacteriocin production: a bactericidal substance produced by some
bacteria & are active against other strains.

Transposable genetic elements

These are non-replicating DNA segments that are capable of
inserting themselves into other DNA molecules.

They are also capable of mediating their transfer from one

location to another on the same chromosome or between
chromosome and plasmids.
The transfer of these elements (transposition) occurs
infrequently and in a random manner.
Insertion of a transposable element into a gene leads to
disruption or inactivation of this gene.

Examples of Transposable genetic elements:

1- Transposons (may encode antibiotic resistance).
2- Pathogenicity island: encodes a variety of virulence
characters .

Bacterial variations:

are changes in bacterial characters, it may be genotypic or

phenotypic.

Phenotypic variation:
changes that occur in response to changes in the environmental
conditions without change in the genetic constitution.
(It is the genetic expression of an organism)
It is:

- Reversible (transient)
- Non heritable

Types of expression:
- Morphology,
- cultural characters,
- physiology
Examples: - induction of L-forms in the lab
- loss of bacterial flagella upon exposure to phenol

Genotypic variation:
changes that occur as a result of change in the
genetic constitution. It is:
-Irreversible
-Heritable
Genotypic variations occur through:

Mutation
Gene transfer
a- Transformation
b- Transduction
c- Conjugation

1-Mutation
Definition:
change in the nucleotide base sequence of the
bacterial genome which may lead to change in
phenotypic character. It can be:
Harmful
Lethal
Helpful
Silent

Mutations That arise in bacterial populations:

Induced: by X-ray, chemicals, UV light

(once103/104) cell division

Spontaneous occur as an error during DNA
replication (once106/107) cell division

Types of mutations
Multisite mutations:
involving extensive chromosomal rearrangements
(inversion, duplication)

Point mutations:
only affecting one or very few nucleotides

substitutions
deletions
insertion

Wild-Type (normal) A,B,C,D,E,F,G

Inversion

A,B,F,E,D,C,G

Duplication

A,B,C,B,C,D,E,F,G

Deletion

A,B,C,E,F

Substitution

A,B,X,D,E,F

Insertion

A,B,X,C,D,E,F

Mutation Type
Point (substitution)
(leu)

(ser) (arg)

Normal AAT AGT GCC

(leu) (cyst) (arg)

Mutant AAT TGT GCC

Mutation Type
Frameshift (deletion)
(leu)

(ser) (arg)

Normal AAT AGT GCC

(leu)

(val)

(pro)

Mutant AAT AGT G CC A

Mutation Type
Frameshift (insertion)
(leu)

(ser) (arg)

Normal AAT AGT GCC

(leu) (glut) (cyst)

Mutant AAT CAGT GCC

2. Gene Transfer in Bacteria

Genetic transfer-results in genetic variation
Three ways:
Transformation: genes are transferred by up take of
free DNA from the surrounding medium (dying bacteria
release naked DNA)
Conjugation: plasmids are transferred from one
bacteria to another via a sex pilus

Transduction: DNA is transferred from one bacteria to

another by a bacteriophage (virus)

Transformation
Recombination by transformation requires homology or
competence between the DNA's involved (donor and
recipient.
This type of recombination is called homologous or
general recombination.

Only DNA from closely related bacteria would be expected

to successfully transform, although in rare instances gene
transfer between distantly related bacteria has been shown
to occur.

Artificial

competence can be induced by treating the

recipient bacteria with Calcium chloride for enabling the
uptake of DNA.

Recombination

by transformation is used in vaccines

preparation and in gene therapy.

Transformation

Transduction
Description: Gene transfer
from a donor to a
recipient by way of a bacteriophage
Role of the bacteriophage
The lytic cycle
Lysogeny

Generalized transduction (occur with lytic cycle)

Specialized transduction (occur with lysogeny)

Transduction
Types of transduction
Generalized - Transduction in which potentially any
dornor bacterial gene can be transferred.

Specialized - Transduction in which only certain

donor genes can be transferred

Generalized Transduction
Infection of Donor
Phage replication and degradation of host DNA

Assembly of phages particles

Release of phage
Infection of recipient

Potentially any donor gene can be transferred

3. Conjugation
Definition: Gene transfer from a
donor to a recipient by direct
physical contact between cells
Mating types in bacteria
Donor
F factor (Fertility factor)

Donor

F (sex) pilus

Recipient
Lacks an F factor

Recipient

3-Conjugation

Conjugation (in E. coli)

Conjugation continued

THANKS FOR YOUR PATIENCE !