The Photo Electric Effect

Discovery, implications, and

current technology
Presentation by Ryan Smith
Discovery: Heinrich Hertz and Phillip Lenard
Hertz clarified Maxwells electromagnetic theory of light:
Proved that electricity can be transmitted in electromagnetic
waves.
Established that light was a form of electromagnetic
radiation.
First person to broadcast and receive these waves.
Back in 1887
The Spark Gap Generator
First observed the effect while working with a
spark-gap generator ~ accidentally, of course

Illuminated his device with ultraviolet light:

This changed the voltage at which sparks
appeared between his electrodes!
Hertzs Spark Gap Generator:
Lenard Goes Further
His assistant, Phillip Lenard, explored the effect
further. He built his own apparatus called a
phototube to determine the nature of the effect:
Lenards Photoelectric Apparatus:
The Experiment:
By varying the voltage on a negatively charged grid between
the ejecting surface and the collector plate, Lenard was able
to:

Determine that the particles had a negative charge.

Determine the kinetic energy of the ejected particles.
Lenards Findings:
Thus he theorized that this voltage must be equal to the maximum
kinetic energy of the ejected particles, or:

KE
max
= eV
stopping

Perplexing Observations:

The intensity of light had no effect on energy

There was a threshold frequency for ejection

Classical physics failed to explain this,
Lenard won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1905.
Einsteins Interpretation
A new theory of light:

Electromagnetic waves carry discrete energy packets

The energy per packet depends on wavelength,
explaining Lenards threshold frequency.

More intense light corresponds to more photons, not
higher energy photons.
This was published in his famous 1905 paper:
On a Heuristic Point of View About the Creation and Conversion of Light
Einsteins Relations:
Einstein predicted that a graph of the maximum kinetic energy versus
frequency would be a straight line, given by the linear relation:

KE = hv -
Therefore light energy comes in multiples of hv
Graph of KE
max
vs. frequency
Quantum leap for quantum mechanics
Wave-particle duality set the stage for 20
th
century quantum mechanics.

In 1924, Einstein wrote:
There are therefore now two theories of light, both indispensable, and - as one
must admit today despite twenty years of tremendous effort on the part of
theoretical physicists - without any logical connection.
*This work won Einstein his Nobel Prize in 1922.*
Electrons must exist only at specific
energy levels within an atom
Quantum Implications
Work Function Ionization Energy
represents how hard it is to remove an electron

Electron volts (eV)

Varies slightly

Emergent Applications
Response is linear with light intensity
Extremely short response time
For example, night vision devices:
At Nearly the Same Time,

Another Discovery is under way.
The PhotoVoltaic Effect:
Same basic principle as the photoelectric effect

HISTORY

In 1839, Alexandre Edmond Becquerel

In 1873, Willoughby Smith

In 1876, William Grylls Adams (with his student R. E. Day)

In 1883, the first real solar cell was built by Charles Fritts,
forming p-n junctions by coating selenium with a thin gold layer.
N-Type: Requires doping a material with atoms of similar
size, but having more valence electrons. ex/ Si:As
P- and N-type Materials
P-Type: Requires doping a material with atoms of similar
size, but having fewer valence electrons. ex/ Si:Ga
P- and N-type Materials
Dopants add quantum energy levels
Translate into bands in the solid semiconductor.
Formation of majority charge carriers on each side:
Donor and Acceptor Bands
N-Type P-Type
*extra negative electrons
*extra positive holes
from electron vacancies
e
-

e
-

Solar (PV) Cells:
Each material by itself is electrically neutral, however
Joining P- and N-Type materials together creates an electric field
at the junction between them ~
An equilibrium is reached where a net charge concentration exists on each side of the junction.
Solar (PV) Cells:
A photon is absorbed by the material near the P-N junction,
creating an electron/hole pair:
The Electric Field Drives Current
Minority charge carriers are attracted to the junction
Majority charge carriers are repelled
Efficiency the Band Gap
Only the right frequencies of light let an electron cross the
junction, or band gap.
The Big Picture:
Hopes for the Future
Multi-junction solar cells
improve efficiency.

Thin-film P-N junction
solar cells reduce material
use and cost.

Bring the current price per watt
down
References:
Austin, Geoff. Jan 2005. Photo Electric Effect. Retrieved 10-23-05.
http://www.eequalsmcsquared.auckland.ac.nz/sites/emc2/tl/pee/overvi
ew.cfm

Einstein, Albert. (1905). On a Heuristic Viewpoint Concerning the
Production and Transformation of Light. Annalen der Physik, Vol 17,
132.

Elert, Glenn. Photoelectric Effect. Retrieved 10-28-05.
http://hypertextbook.com/physics/modern/photoelectric/

Hamakawa, Yoshihiro. (2004). Thin-Film Solar Cells: Next
generation photovoltaics and its application. New York: Springer.

Lenardic, Denis. A Walk Through Time. Retrieved 11-12-05.
http://www.pvresources.com/en/history.php

U.S. DOE Photovoltaics Program. (2005). Photovoltaics Timeline.
Retrieved 10-27-05. http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blsolar2.html
n.a. n.d. Philipp Lenard Biography. Retrieved 10-23-05.
http://nobelprize.org/physics/laureates/1905/lenard-bio.html

n.a. n.d. The Photo Electric Effect. Retrieved 10-06-05.
http://www.lancs.ac.uk/ug/jacksom2/

n.a. n.d. The Electric Field In Action. Retrieved 11-12-05.
http://www.sandia.gov/pv/docs/PVFEffElectric_Field.htm

n.a. n.d. Timeline of Solar Cells. Retrieved 10-27-05.
http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Timeline-of-solar-
cells

Robertson, E F. OConner, J J. A history of Quantum
Mechanics. Retrieved 10-25-05.
http://www-groups.dcs.st-
and.ac.uk/~history/HistTopics/The_Quantum_age_begins.html

Smith, Willoughby. (1873). "Effect of Light on Selenium during
the passage of an Electric Current". Nature, Vol ? 303.
Available URL: http://histv2.free.fr/selenium/smith.htm