Propagation Modeling

What is a propagation model ?

A propagation model is a set of mathematical expressions
and algorithms used to represent the radio characteristics of a real
environment.

Prediction model can be either empirical (also called statistical) or
theoretical (also called deterministic), or a combination of these
two.

Empirical models are based on measurements, the theoretical
models deal with the fundamental principles of radio wave
propagation phenomena.

In the empirical models, all environmental influences such as
Reflection, refraction, diffraction, eff. ant heights, clutter factors are
implicitly taken into account. This is the main advantage of these
models.
Why we need a Model ?

We need a propagation model for :


To determine coverage levels and areas covered by a site/sites.


Calculate the levels of interference (C/I, C/A) within the network.


Determine the traffic distribution in the network.
Different types of models : -

Okumura - Hata.

Walfisch - Ikegami.

General Model.

Other Models.

Micro - Cells.

Two Part Models.


Parameters controlling the propagation model will
be discussed in the following slides.





Okumura-Hata General propagation model

The received signal strength at the mobile is given by the following equation:





PRX Receive power in dBm.

PTX Transmit power (EiRP) in dBm including Ant Gain.

K1 Constant offset in dB. (Intercept power value)

K2 Slope describing loss as a function of distance( log(d).)

K3 Describing loss as a function of the BTS effective ant
height log (H eff).

K4 Constant describing the loss as a function of diffraction.




K5 Okumura-Hata joint function of BTS effective ant. height and
the distance log(Heff) log(d).


K6 Correction factor for the mobile effective antenna height gain
(Hmeff).


d Distance, in meters, between MS and BTS.


Heff BTS effective antenna height.


KCLUTTER Gain or Loss in dB for clutter type at mobile position.


Hmeff Mobile effective antenna height.

Tuning a Model

Tuning of RF models is the most important part of predicting the RF receive levels

in a cellular system since this is the tool that calculates the path loss between

Base station and Mobile stations.


To understand the tuning process, it is important to understand that the RF models

are empirically derived from RF propagation data measured (CW).


The process of tuning a model involves fitting measured survey data in an area to

selected model parameters that allows the model to yield values that closely fit the

measured survey data (Curve fitting).





This process includes several steps that are critical :


Selection of proper models


Availability and verification of survey data


Selecting the best of K1 and K2 values to fit survey data


Assigning proper weighting to clutter &


Using a systematic process to select values for the remaining
model parameters Like K3, K4, K5, K6 & Kclutter.
Pre-requisites for Model Tuning

Mapping data validation, i.e. the clutter and terrain database
that is used to derive the propagation models should be
thoroughly checked.

Ensure that clutter, heights and vector data uses the same
mapping projection.

CW survey site selection should be approx. 10% to 15% of
the system count.

It is very important that the selected sites covers all clutter
categories for the ability to calculate the clutter factors.
Things to remember when selecting the sites to survey


It is important to target hilly as well as flat areas.


The CW survey sites should have variations in the effective
antenna height to enable PLANET to model the height
dependence factor.


CW test sites should provide enough radio clearance for
the survey Tx antenna.


Measurement routes should be prepared split into zones
circle around the survey site

Max range for survey routes as a circumference app. 3 3.5mi
for Urban/Suburban areas and approx. 6-9mi for rural areas.

Survey routes should be planned to avoid radial routes with
line of site from the transmitter but provide a mixture of
wide and narrow streets that have the tangential and
arbitrary orientation with respect to the base station.

Basically the routes should be a representation of all
clutter categories in the terrain database.

Before measurements ensure CW equipment, feeder, and antenna
are calibrated.
Planning Measurement Routes
Things the survey team should do during measurement :


Ensure the CW receiver noise floor is not reached.

Determine if line of sight or major shadowing conditions
exist when signal increases/decreases by 10-15dB.

Monitor and record on the map and CW survey report form
unrepresentative conditions such as tunnels, flyovers and
bridges.
After completion CW log files loaded into PLANET
using the Survey Loader.

A header file for each log file is created.

Spatial filtering is then carried out to remove data points
from close into the transmitter since this will not contribute
to distance dependence and to remove data points close to
noise floor having max range.

Signal filtering is carried out to ensure receiver linearity.

Unrepresentative data points such as tunnels, bridges,
large shadowing features, etc., should be deleted.
Try to analyze each log
file for every site and
try to draw the signal
levels for each survey
file loaded and identify
the unwanted log files
closer to the noise
floor(-120dBm) and
remove from the files
for tuning before
combining into a single
final file for tuning.
Once above said all is taken care calibration of propagation
should commence.

The tuning of the model involves the determination of diff
coefficient values and clutter factors (K1 thru K6) such
that the residual RMS (difference between measured and
predicted signal strength) value is set to its lowest value.

This is not an easy task and takes a number of iterations before
succeeded.
The Received Signal In A
Real World.
Underlying Fall In Level
Proportional to 40log(d).
Slow Variations
Caused by Terrain.
Fast, Deep Fades
Caused By Reflections
S
i
g
n
a
l

L
e
v
e
l

Distance From Transmitter
Propagation over plane earth would give us received signal level
Proportional to 40log(d) Shown in red

Effects of terrain shadowing gives us a signal level with log-normal
Distribution about theoretical level and a std. deviation of 8dB
Shown in blue

Effects of reflections gives us a signal level with Raleigh distribution with
Fading depths over 40 dB.
Sum of above 3 effects is shown in black
General Principles.
Distance from Base Station
R
e
c
e
i
v
e

L
e
v
e
l

Slope
Intercept
Offsets Caused
By Clutter etc.
Models are generally based on the principle that the level (measured in dB)
falls in a linear fashion with distance from the transmitter.
This is represented by a term in the model of K2.log(d) where K2 is the slope.
At some distance from the transmitter the level is set to a fixed value
known as the intercept K1.
An offset may be applied for effective base station antenna height or mobile
effective antenna height all along the path.
Local offsets may be applied to the model at different points to reflect the
effects of different clutter types at different points along the path or the
effects of a diffracted path i.e.. shadowing by terrain or other obstructions.
Path Loss Slope.
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

L
e
v
e
l

(
d
B
m
)

Distance from Base Station
The diagram represents a number
of signal level measurements taken
at various points within the
coverage area of a cell.

It is possible to draw a straight
line through this plot that will show
the underlying slope of the
level/distance characteristic.
To test the accuracy of the line that has been drawn it is necessary to
calculate the error at every measurement point and hence a mean error.

If the line that had been drawn was the blue one instead of the red one
there is obviously an error. If the mean error is calculated, because there
are both positive and negative errors, it will come to zero. To test the slope,
therefore, the RMS error must be calculated.


Path Loss Intercept.
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

L
e
v
e
l

(
d
B
m
)

Distance from Base Station
The slope of the line is now fixed.

It is possible to move the line up or
down on the plot. If this is done and
the mean error, between the line
and the actual measurements, is
calculated it is possible to place the
line so that it is close to zero
mean error. The diagram shows a
red line with the correct offset and
a blue line with an incorrect offset.


It is now possible to mark the plot at a fixed distance from the base station
and to obtain a value in dBm for the intercept point. This point is shown
marked in green on the diagram.

The slope and intercept values have now been calculated and may be used
in the propagation model.



Clutter Values.
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
d

L
e
v
e
l

(
d
B
m
)

Distance from Base Station
The local variations in level may be
due to clutter at the mobile location.

Samples have been color coded to
indicate the type of clutter present
at each sample site.


Having assigned clutter values, the model must be run and its predictions
compared with the real measurements. The calculation of mean errors in
different types of clutter and the standard deviation of errors enables
these values to be fine tuned.

There is also an overall clutter weighting to be assigned.



Create a new model.

First make all the clutter
factors equal to Zero.

Choose General

Start tuning the model
by playing with
Intercept K1 and
Slope K2.
Now try to bring the straight line on Log(d) Vs Error to zero
so that mean error distribution is even on both sides of
bell shaped Gaussian curve
Once you have made
Log(d) Vs Error zero.

Apply the clutter
Factors for the model.

Again play with K1 &K2
till std. dev is
reduced to (8-9)dB.
Errors And Accuracy.
Topographical Data.
Clutter Data.
Vector Data.
Level Measurements.
Navigation.
The Overall Picture.
Errors in topographic data might be
out of date ground surveys, wrong
interpretation of airborne photographic
surveys, low resolution space borne
surveys and also errors introduced
in digitizing maps (DTM).
Mapping companies may wrongly
classify clutter data.
The border between two very
different types of clutter is therefore
difficult to define and prediction
errors of several dBs can result.
(Spatial accuracy around clutter
Borders).

Vector data such as roads may be missing from some maps or out of date
on others. The roads most likely to be missing are, of course, those most
likely to generate large volumes of traffic.

As in all areas of mapping, data may be incorrect, either in the original source
documents or as a result of an error in digitization.

Vector data errors :-
Level Measurement errors :-

CW Survey equipment should be calibrated.

EIRP of a Base station can be very difficult to verify with in a few dB
because its not possible to measure the installed gain and radiation
pattern of an antenna.
Navigational errors:-

Navigation systems carried by survey vehicles must be kept in calibration
and checked on a regular basis.
The Overall picture :-

Survey data can be in error. Mapping data can be in error.
Propagation is stochastic process and so we cannot expect to find
every measurement to be representative of what is really happening.
The Limitations Of
Predictions.
Propagation is A Stochastic Process
which is determined by a random
distribution of probabilities.
Any Description of Propagation Must Be
Statistical and Not Deterministic
It is not possible to say that the receive level at a particular point is XdBm.
It is however possible to say that there is a 98% probability that the level
is within YdB of XdBm.

In General it can be expected that the level measured at a particular point
will have a log. normal distribution with a mean as predicted by the model
and a standard deviation of 8dB. It must be remembered that there is also
fast Raleigh distributed fading superimposed on top of this which indicates
that there is a 1% probability of the received level falling a further 20dB.

Probability and Planning

Propagation is a random process and it is impossible to say that the
received level at a particular point coming from a particular transmitter
is an absolute level.

The resulting signal level is a random variable, all we are able to do is to
make statements such as there is a 98% probability that the received
level will be within 8dB of an absolute value. A random variable does not
have an absolute value.

To be able to make this statement we must have a mathematical model
that is accurate enough to do this. That is to say that somebody has made
a large number of field measurements of receive levels and, from a
theoretical base, has constructed a mathematical model, the output of
which matches those measurements. Definition of a propagation model.