Chapter 8 Balances on Nonreactive Processes

8.1 Elements of Energy Balances Calculations

8.1a Reference States A Review
We can never know the absolute values of and for a species at a given state.
Fortunately, we never need to know the absolute values of and at specified
states; we only need to know and for specified changes of state, and we
can determine these quantities experimentally.
We may therefore arbitrarily choose a reference state for a species and determine
for the transition from the reference state to a series of other states.
If we set equal to zero, then for a specified state is the specific internal
energy at that state relative to the reference state. The specific enthalpies at each
state can then be calculated from the definition, , provided that the
specific volume ( ) of the species at the given temperature and pressure is known.
The values of and in the steam tables were generated using this procedure.
The reference state was chosen to be liquid water at the triple point [H
2
O(l,
0.01C, 0.00611 bar)], at which point was defined to be zero.
U

A U

A
ref
U

= A
ref
U

) U

( U

A =
V

P U

+ =
V

This does not mean that the absolute

value of for water vapor at 400C
and 10.0 bar is 2958 kJ/kg. It means
that of water vapor at 400C and
10.0 bar is 2958 kJ/kg relative to
water at the reference state, or
U

kg / kJ 2958 U

) bar 0 . 10 , C 400 , v ( O H ) bar 00611 . 0 , C 01 . 0 , l ( O H

2 2
= A
10 bar

0.307 m
3
kg

1 m
3
10
3
L

8.31410
-3
kJ/(molK)

0.08314 Lbar/(molK)

+ =
+ =
kg / kJ 2958
V

P U

kg / kJ 3264 =
The specific enthalpy of water vapor at 400C and 10.0 bar is
Test Yourself p. 359
and are state properties of a species; that is, their values depend only on
the state of the species primarily on its temperature, state of aggregation
(solid, liquid or gas), and, to a lesser extent, on its pressure (and for mixture
of some species, on its mole fraction in the mixture).

A state property does not depend on how the species reached its state.
Consequently, when a species passes from one state to another, both and
for the process are independent of the path taken from the first state to
the second one.
8.1b Hypothetical Process Paths
U

A
H

A
In most of this chapter and in chapter 9, we will learn how to calculate internal energy
and enthalpy changes associated with certain processes; specifically,

1.Changes in P at constant T and state of aggregation (Section 8.2).
2.Changes in T at constant P and state of aggregation (Section 8.3).
3.Phase changes at constant T and P melting, solidifying, vaporizing, condensing,
sublimating (Section 8.4).
4.Mixing of two liquids or dissolving of a gas or a solid in a liquid at constant T and P
(Section 8.5).
5.Chemical reaction at constant T and P (Chapter 9).
Once we know how to calculate and for these five step of processes, we can calculate
these quantities for any process by taking advantage of the fact that and are state
properties. The procedure is to construct a hypothetical process path from the initial state to
the final state consisting of a series of steps of the given five steps.
Having done this, we calculate for each of the steps, and then add the for the steps
to calculate for the total process. Since is a state property, calculated for the
hypothetical process path which we constructed for convenience is the same as for the
path actually followed by the process.
H

A U

A
H

A s ' H

A
H

A H

A
H

A
For example, we wish to calculate
for a process in which solid phenol
at 25C and 1 atm is converted to
phenol vapor at 300C and 3 atm.
H

A
) atm 1 , C 25 , soild ( H

) atm 3 , C 300 , vapor ( H

= A
However, we do not have such a table.
6 5 4 3 2 1
H

A + A + A + A + A + A = A
Step 1,3, 5 Type 2 (change in T at constant P)
Step 2,4 Type 3 (change in phase at constant T and P)
Step 6 Type 1 (change in P at constant T)
Test Yourself p. 361
8.1c Procedure for Energy Balance Calculations
The procedure to follow for the energy balance calculation.

1.Perform all required material balance calculations.
2.Write the appropriate form of the energy balance (closed or open system) and delete any
of the terms that are either zero or negligible for the given process system.
3.Choose a reference state phase, temperature, and pressure for each species involved
in the process.
4.For a closed system, construct a table with columns for initial and final amounts of each
species (m
i
or n
i
) and specific internal energies relative to the chosen reference state ( ).
For an open system, construct a table with columns for inlet and outlet stream
component flow rates ( or ) and specific enthalpies relative to the chosen reference
states.
i
U

i
m
i
n
5.Calculate all required values of ( or ) and insert the values in the appropriate
places in the table.
6.Calculate




7.Calculate any work, kinetic energy, or potential energy terms that you have not dropped
from the energy balance.
8.Solve the energy balance for whichever variable is unknown (often Q or ).
i
U

i
H

m U

m or U

n U

n U
initial
i i
final
i i
initial
i i
final
i i
= A
H

m H

m or H

n H

n H
in
i i
out
i i
in
i i
out
i i
= A
Closed System
Open System
Q

p k
E E U W Q A + A + A =
p k s
E E H W Q

A + A + A =
Closed System
Open System
1.Perform required material balance calculations. None are required in this example.
2.Write and simplify the energy balance.

3.Choose reference states for acetone and nitrogen.
N
2
(g, 25C, 1 atm)
Ac (l, 20C, 5 atm)
Example 8.1-1
Acetone (denoted as Ac) is partially condensed out of a gas stream containing 66.9
mole% acetone vapor and the balance nitrogen. Process specifications and material
balance calculations lead to the flowchart shown below.







The process operates at steady state. Calculate the required cooling rate.
Solution
p k s
E E H W Q

A + A + A =
i
in
i i
out
i
H

n H

n H Q

= A =

4.Construct an inlet-outlet enthalpy table.
5.Calculate all unknown specific enthalpies.
) atm 1 , C 65 , v ( Ac ) atm 5 , C 20 , l ( forAc H

) atm 5 , C 20 , l ( toAc relative ) atm 1 , C 65 , v ( Ac nthalpyof specifice H

1
A =
=
) atm 1 , C 65 , v ( Ac ) atm 1 , C 56 , v ( Ac
) atm 1 , C 56 , l ( Ac ) atm 1 , C 20 , l ( Ac ) atm 5 , C 20 , l ( Ac
d 1 c 1
b 1 a 1
H

A A
A A
dT ) C ( ) H

( dT ) C ( ) atm 5 atm 1 ( V

) v ( Ac p
C 65
C 56
Ac v ) l ( Ac p
C 56
C 20
) l ( Ac
d 1 c 1 b 1 a 1 1
} }

+ A + + =
A + A + A + A =
Table B.1
3 12 2 8 5
p
5
p
T 10 76 . 34 T 10 78 . 12 T 10 10 . 20 07196 . 0
C mol
kJ
C : ) v ( Ac
T 10 6 . 18 123 . 0
C mol
kJ
C : ) l ( Ac

+ + =
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
.
|

\
|

Table B.1
Table B.1
0.0734 L/mol 30.2 kJ/mol
mol / kJ 7 . 35 mol / kJ ) 753 . 0 2 . 30 68 . 4 0297 . 0 ( H

1
= + + + =
6.Calculate
H

A
s / kJ 2320
s / kJ )] 16 . 1 )( 1 . 33 ( ) 7 . 35 )( 9 . 66 ( ) 10 . 0 )( 1 . 33 ( ) 0 )( 55 . 63 ( ) 0 . 32 )( 35 . 3 [(
H

n H

n H
i
in
i i
out
i
=
+ + =
= A

7.Calculate nonzero work, kinetic energy, and potential energy terms.

Nothing to do in this step.
8.Solve the energy balance for
Q

kW 2320 s / kJ 2320 H Q = = A =

Heat must be transferred from the condenser at a rate of 2320 kW to
achieve the required cooling and condensation.
8.2 Changes in Pressure at Constant Temperature
It has been observed experimentally that internal energy is nearly independent of pressure
for solids and liquids at a fixed temperature, as is specific volume.
If the pressure of a solid or liquid
changes at constant temperature
0 U

~ A
P V P V V P 0 ) V

P ( U

A ~ A + A + ~ A + A = A
For a gas undergoing an isothermal
pressure change unless gases at
temperature well below 0C or well
above 1 atm are involved.
0 U

~ A
0 ) RT ( 0 ) V

P ( U

~ A + ~ A + A = A
ideal gas
Test Yourself p. 366
If tables of or are available for the gas,
there is of course no need to make this assumption.
) P , T ( U

) P , T ( H

If gases are far from ideal or if they undergo large pressure changes, you must
either use tables of thermodynamic properties (such as the steam tables for water)
or thermodynamic correlations to determine or .
U

A H

A
8.3 Changes in Temperature
Sensible Heat : heat that must be transferred to raise or lower the temperature of a
substance or mixture of substances.
The quantity of heat required to produce a specified temperature change in a system
can be determined by the appropriate form of the first law of thermodynamics:
8.3a Sensible Heat and Heat Capacities
) m opensyste ( H Q
) tem closedsys ( U Q

A =
A =
We have neglected kinetic and potential energy
changes and work.
To determine the sensible heat requirement for a heating or cooling process, you
must therefore be able to determine AU or for the specified temperature change.
H

A
The specific internal energy of a substance depends
strongly on temperature. If the temperature is raised
or lowered in such a way that the system volume
remains constant, the specific internal energy might
vary as shown in the right plot:
1
urveatT slopeofc
T
U

0 T
A
A
A
V
0 T
v
T
U

T
U

lim ) T ( C
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
)
`

A
A
=
A
heat capacity at
constant volume }
= = A
2
1
T
T
v 1 1 2 2
dT ) T ( C ) T ( U

) T ( U

Suppose both temperature and volume of a substance change. To calculate ,

you may break the process into two steps a change in at constant T followed
by a change in T at constant .
U

A
V

) V

, T ( A ) V

, T ( A ) V

, T ( A
2 2
U

2 1
U

1 1
2 1

A A
U

A
2 1
U

A + A = A is a state property
U

}
~ A + ~ A + A = A
2
1
T
T
v 2 2 1
dT ) T ( C U

0 U

ideal gas: exact

solid or liquid: a good approximation
nonideal gas: valid only if V is constant.
Example 8.3-1
Calculate the heat required to raise 200 kg of nitrous oxide from 20C to 150C in a
constant-volume vessel. The constant-volume heat capacity of N
2
O in this temperature
range is given by the equation


where T is in C.
T 10 42 . 9 855 . 0 ) C kg / kJ ( C
4
v

+ =
Solution
kg / kJ 121 kg / kJ ) 4 . 10 111 (
2
T 10 42 . 9
T 855 . 0
dT (
C kg
kJ
) T 10 42 . 9 855 . 0 ( ) kg / kJ ( U

C 150
C 20
2 4
C 150
C 20
C 150
C 20
4
= + =

+ =
|
|
.
|

\
|

+ = A

}
kJ 200 , 24 ) kg / kJ 121 )( kg 200 ( ) kg / kJ ( U

) kg ( m U Q = = A = A =
The energy balance for this closed system is
Suppose both temperature and pressure of a substance change. To calculate ,
you may break the process into two steps a change in P at constant T followed
by a change in T at constant P.
H

A
) P , T ( A ) P , T ( A ) P , T ( A
2 2
H

2 1
H

1 1
2 1

A A
H

A
2 1
H

A + A = A is a state property
H

}
= A
2
1
T
T
p
dT ) T ( C H

ideal gas: exact

nonideal gas: valid only if P is constant.
P
0 T
p
T
H

T
H

lim ) T ( C
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
)
`

A
A
=
A
heat capacity at
constant pressure
}
= = A
2
1
T
T
p 1 1 2 2
dT ) T ( C ) T ( H

) T ( H

) idealgas ( 0 H

1
= A
) iquid solidorl ( P V

1
A ~ A
solid or liquid
}
+ A = A
2
1
T
T
p
dT ) T ( C P V

Test Yourself p. 368

tabulated enthalpy
thermodynamic relation for variations of with P H

8.3b Heat Capacity Formulas

Heat capacities are functions of temperature and are frequently expressed in
polynomial form


Values of the coefficients a, b, c, and d are given in Table B.2 of Appendix B
for a number of species at 1 atm, and listings for additional substances are
given on pp.2-161 to 2-186 of Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook.
3 2
p
dT cT bT a C + + + =
Simple relationships exist between C
p
and C
v
in two cases:
R C C : s IdealGase
C C : dSolids Liquidsan
v p
v p
+ =
~
The relationship between C
p
and C
v
for nonideal gases is complex.
Example 8.3-2
Assuming ideal gas behavior, calculate the heat that must be transferred in each of the
following cases.
1.A stream of nitrogen flowing at a rate of 100 mol/min is heated from 20C to 100C.
2.Nitrogen contained in a 5-liter flask at an initial pressure of 3 bar is cooled from
90C to 30C.
Solution
1.
p k s
E E H W Q

A + A + A =
3 12 2 8 5
p
T 10 781 . 2 T 10 5723 . 0 T 10 2199 . 0 02900 . 0
C mol
kJ
C

+ + =
|
.
|

\
|

From table B.2 the heat capacity of N
2
at a constant pressure of 1 atm is
H Q

A =
mol / kJ 332 . 2 mol / kJ ) 10 7 10 9 . 1 0106 . 0 320 . 2 (
4
T
10 781 . 2
3
T
10 5723 . 0
2
T
10 2199 . 0 T 02900 . 0 dT ) T ( C H

5 3
C 100
C 20
4
12
C 100
C 20
3
8
C 100
C 20
2
5
C 100
C 20
C 100
C 20
p
= + + =
+ + = = A

}
mol / kJ 233
mol
kJ 332 . 2
min
mol 100
H

n H Q = = A = A =

2.
3 12 2 8 5
p
T 10 781 . 2 T 10 5723 . 0 T 10 2199 . 0 02900 . 0
C mol
kJ
C

+ + =
|
.
|

\
|

R C C
v p
+ =
3 12 2 8 5
v
T 10 781 . 2 T 10 5723 . 0 T 10 2199 . 0 02069 . 0
C mol
kJ
C

+ + =
|
.
|

\
|

) J 10 / kJ 1 )( C 1 / K 1 )]( K mol /( J 314 . 8 [ R
3
=
mol / kJ 250 . 1 mol / kJ ) 10 5 10 34 . 1 10 92 . 7 241 . 1 (
4
T
10 781 . 2
3
T
10 5723 . 0
2
T
10 2199 . 0 T 02069 . 0 dT ) T ( C U

5 3 3
C 30
C 90
4
12
C 30
C 90
3
8
C 30
C 90
2
5
C 30
C 90
C 30
C 90
v
= + =
+ + = = A

}
p k
E E U W Q A + A + A =
U Q A =
mol 497 . 0
) K 363 )]( K mol /( bar L 08314 . 0 [
) L 00 . 5 )( bar 00 . 3 (
RT / PV n =

= =
kJ 621 . 0 ) mol / kJ 250 . 1 )( mol 497 . 0 ( U

n U Q = = A = A =
Example 8.3-3
Fifteen kmol/min of air is cooled from 430C to 100C. Calculate the required heat removal
rate using (1) heat capacity formulas from Table B.2 (2) specific enthalpies Table B.8.
Solution
p k s
E E H W Q

A + A + A = H

n H

n H

n H Q
air in , air air out , air air
A = = A =

(1) The hard way
| |
mol / kJ 98 . 9 mol / kJ ) 0167 . 0 0835 . 0 3672 . 0 5502 . 9 (

mol / kJ
) 430 100 (
4
10 965 . 1
) 430 100 (
3
10 3191 . 0
) 430 100 (
2
10 4147 . 0
) 430 100 ( 02894 . 0

dT T 10 965 . 1 T 10 3191 . 0 T 10 4147 . 0 02894 . 0

dT ) T ( C
mol
kJ
H

4 4
12
3 3
8
2 2
5
C 100
C 430
3 12 2 8 5
C 100
C 430
p
= + =
(
(
(
(

+
=
+ + =
=
|
.
|

\
|
A

}
}
Table B.8
(2) The easy way
Table B.8
mol / kJ 19 . 2 ) C 100 ( H

=
Table B.8
mol / kJ 37 . 14 ) C 500 ( H

mol / kJ 24 . 11 ) C 400 ( H

=
=
mol / kJ 17 . 12 mol / kJ ) 24 . 11 37 . 14 (
100
30
24 . 11 ) C 430 ( H

=
(

+ =
mol / kJ 98 . 9 mol / kJ ) 17 . 12 19 . 2 ( H

= = A
= A = H

n Q
air

15.0 kmol
1 kmol

1 min

s

1 kW

1 kJ/s

min

10
3
mol

-9.98 kJ

mol

kW 2500 =
Test Yourself p. 371
8.3c Estimation of Heat Capacities
The polynomial expressions for C
p
in Table B.2 are based on experimental data for the
listed compounds and provide a basis for accurate calculations of enthalpy changes.
Several approximate methods for estimating heat capacities in the absence of tabulated
formulas are presented.
Kopps rule is a simple empirical method for
estimating the heat capacity of a solid or
liquid at or near 20C. According to the rule,
C
p
for a molecular compound is the sum of
contributions (given in Table B.10) for each
atomic element in the compound.
) C mol /( J 79
) C mol /( J )] 6 . 9 2 ( ) 17 2 ( 26 [
) C ( 2 ) C ( 2 ) C ( ) C (
H pa O pa Ca pa ) OH ( Ca p
2
=
+ + =
+ + =
true value is 89.5 J/(molC)
Suppose we wish to calculate the enthalpy change associated with a change in temperature
undergone by a mixture of substances. Enthalpies and heat capacities of certain mixtures
are tabulated in standard references. Lacking such data, we may use the following
approximation:

Rule 1 : For a mixture of gases or liquids, calculate the total enthalpy change as the sum of
the enthalpy changes for the pure mixture components. The enthalpy changes
associated with the mixing of the components are neglected.
Rule 2 : For highly dilute solutions of solids or gases in liquids, neglect the enthalpy change
of the solute. The more dilute the solution, the better this approximation.
The calculation of enthalpy changes for the heating or cooling of a mixture of known
composition may often be simplified by calculating a heat capacity for the mixture in
the following manner:

=
s component
mixture
all
pi i mix p
) T ( C y ) T ( ) C (
(C
p
)
mix
= heat capacity of the mixture
y
i
= mass or mole fraction of the ith component
C
pi
= heat capacity of the ith component
If C
pi
and (C
p
)
mix
are expressed in molar units, then y
i
must be the mole
fraction of the ith component, and if the heat capacities are expressed in
mass units, then y
i
must be the mass fraction of the ith component.
}
= A
2
1
T
T
mix p
dT ) T ( ) C ( H

(C
p
)
mix
is known
Valid to the extent that enthalpies of mixing may be neglected.
Example 8.3-4
Calculate the heat required to bring 150mol/h of a stream containing 60% C
2
H
6
and
40% C
3
H
8
by volume from 0C to 400C. Determine a heat capacity for the mixture
as part of the problem.
Solution
Table B.2
3 12 2 8 5
ethane
T 10 280 . 7 T 10 816 . 5 T 10 92 . 13 04937 . 0 ) T ( C

+ + =
3 12 2 8 5
propane
T 10 71 . 31 T 10 11 . 13 T 10 59 . 22 06803 . 0 ) T ( C

+ + =
3 12 2 8 5
propane ethane mix p
T 10 05 . 17 T 10 734 . 8 T 10 39 . 17 05683 . 0
C 400 . 0 C 600 . 0 )] C mol /( kJ [ ) C (

+ + =
+ =
mol / kJ 89 . 34 dT ) T ( ) C ( H

C 400
C 0
mix p
= = A
}

= A = A = H

n H Q

150 mol
mol

h

34.89 kJ

h
kJ
5230 =
Test Yourself p. 373
8.3d Energy Balances on Single-Phase Systems
We are now in position to perform energy balances on any processes that do not
involve phase changes, mixing steps for which enthalpy changes cannot be neglected,
or chemical reactions.
If a process involves heating or cooling a single species from T
1
to T
2
, the procedure
is straightforward:
1. Evaluate

2. For a closed system


For a open system

3.Substitue for AU, AH, or in the approximate energy balance equation to
determine the required heat transfer, Q, or heat transfer rate, .
}
= A
2
1
T
T
v
dT C U

}
= A
2
1
T
T
p
dT C H

correcting for pressure changes if necessary.

) tP tan atcons ( H

n H
) tV tan atcons ( U

n U
A = A
A = A
H

n H A = A

A
Q

p k
E E U W Q A + A + A =
p k s
E E H W Q

A + A + A =
Closed System
Open System
Example 8.3-5
A stream containing 10% CH
4
and 90% air by volume is to be heated from 20C
to 300C. Calculate the required rate of heat input in kilowatts if the flow rate of
the gas is 2.0010
3
liters (STP)/min.
Solution
Basis: Given Flow Rate
= n
2000 L (STP)
22.4 L (STP)

min

1 mol

min
mol
3 . 89 =
p k s
E E H W Q

A + A + A =

= A =
in
i i
out
i i
H

n H

n H Q

) etmixture Pinoutl , C 300 , g ( CH ) atm 1 , C 20 , g ( CH
4 4

mol / kJ 09 . 12
dT ) T 10 0 . 11 T 10 3661 . 0 T 10 469 . 5 03431 . 0 (
dT ) C ( H

C 300
C 20
3 12 2 8 5
C 300
C 20
CH p 1
4
=
+ + =
=
}
}

neglecting effect of
pressure on enthalpy

neglecting heats of mixing
of gases
Table B.8
mol / kJ 17 . 8 H

, mol / kJ 15 . 0 H

3 2
= =
min / kJ 776
min / kJ )] 15 . 0 )( 4 . 80 ( ) 0 )( 93 . 8 ( ) 17 . 8 )( 4 . 80 [( ) 09 . 12 min)( / mol 93 . 8 ( H

n H

n H Q
in
i i
out
i i
=
+ = = A =



776 kJ
60 s

min

1 min

1 kW

1 kJ/s

= Q

kW 9 . 12 =
Example 8.3-6
A gas stream containing 8.0 mole% CO and 92.0 mol% CO
2
at 500C is fed to a waste heat
boiler, a large metal shell containing a bundle of small-diameter tubes. The hot gas flows
over the outside of the tubes. Liquid water at 25C is fed to the boiler in a ratio 0.200 mol
feedwater/mol hot gas and flowed inside the tubes. Heat is transferred from the hot gas
through the tube walls to the water, causing the gas to cool and the water to heat to its
boiling point and evaporate to form saturated steam at 5.0 bar. The steam may be used for
heating or power generation in the plant or as the feed to another process unit. The gas
leaving the boiler is flared (burned) and discharged to the atmosphere. The boiler operates
adiabatically all the heat transferred from the gas goes into the water, as opposed to some
of it leaking through the outside boiler wall. The flowchart for an assumed basis of 1.00 mol
feed gas is shown below.





What is the temperature of the exiting gas?
Solution
0 H

n H

n H
in
i i
out
i i
= = A

adiabatic
}
}

+ + =
=
T
C 500
3 12 2 8 5
T
C 500
CO p 1
dT ) T 10 220 . 2 T 10 3548 . 0 T 10 4110 . 0 02895 . 0 (
dT ) C ( H

}
}

+ + =
=
T
C 500
3 12 2 8 5
T
C 500
CO p 2
dT ) T 10 464 . 7 T 10 887 . 2 T 10 223 . 4 03611 . 0 (
dT ) C ( H

2
) H

ressureon ffectofp neglecte : 5 . TableB ( kg / kJ 105 )] bar 5 , C 25 , l ( O H [ H

2 3
~ =
) 6 . TableB ( kg / kJ 5 . 2747 )] d ' sat , bar 5 , v ( O H [ H

2 4
~ =
C 299 T =
0 H = A
8.3e Numerical Integration of Tabulated Heat Capacities
}
2
1
T
T
p
dT C
If a function relation for C
p
(T) is available, such as one of
polynomial of Table B.2, the integration can be carried out
analytically; and if tabulated specific enthalpies are available
for the substance being heated or cooled, a simple subtraction
replaces the integration.
The only information you have about Cp is its value at a
series of temperatures that span the range from T
1
to T
2
. The
question is how to estimate the value of the integral from
these data.
A better solution is to use one of the many existing
quadrature formulas algebraic expressions that provide
estimates of the integrals of tabulated data. Several such
formulas are presented and illustrated in Appendix A.3.
8.4 Phase Change Operations
Phase changes such as fusion and vaporization are usually accompanied by large
changes in internal energy and enthalpy. Heat transfer requirements in phase
change operations consequently tend to be substantial, since (closed
constant-volume system) or (open system).
U Q A ~
H Q

A ~
8.4a Latent Heats
The specific enthalpy change associated with the transition of a substance from one
phase to another at constant temperature and pressure is known as the latent heat of
the phase change.
Latent heats for the two most commonly encountered phase changes are defined as
follows:

1.Heat of fusion (or heat of melting). is the specific enthalpy difference
between the solid and liquid forms of a species at T and P.

2.Heat of vaporization. is the specific enthalpy difference between the
liquid and vapor forms of a species at T and P.

) P , T ( H

m
A
) P , T ( H

v
A
Tabulated values of these two latent heats, such as those in Table B.1 and on pp. 2-151
through 2-160 of Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, usually apply to a substance
at its normal melting or boiling point that is, at a pressure of 1 atm. The quantities are
referred to as standard heats of fusion and vaporization.
g / J 5 . 2442 ) mmHg 78 . 23 , C 25 , O H ( H

g / J 3 . 2442 ) mmHg 760 , C 25 , O H ( H

g / J 7 . 2258 ) mmHg 760 , C 100 , O H ( H

2 v
2 v
2 v
= A
= A
= A



The latent heat of a phase change
may vary considerably with the
temperature at which the change
occurs but hardly varies at all with
the pressure at the transition point.
For example:
When using a tabulated latent heat, you must therefore be sure that the phase change
in question takes place at the temperature for which the tabulated value is reported,
but you may ignore moderate variations in pressure.
Example 8.4-1
At what rate in kilowatts must heat be transferred to a liquid stream of methanol
at its normal boiling point to generate 1500 g/min of saturated methanol vapor?
Solution
Table B.1
C 7 . 64 molatT / kJ 3 . 35 H

bp v
= = A
p k s
E E H W Q

A + A + A =
v
H

n H Q A = A =

1500 g CH
3
OH
32.0 g CH
3
OH

1 min

60 s

1 kW

1 kJ/s

min

1 mol

35.3 kJ

mol

= Q

kW 6 . 27 =
Phases changes often occur at temperatures other than the temperature for
which the latent heat is tabulated. When faced with this situation, you must
select a hypothetical process path that permits the available data to be used.
Example 8.4-2
One hundred g-moles per hour of liquid n-hexane at 25C and 7 bar is
vaporized and heated to 300C at constant pressure. Neglecting the effect
of pressure on enthalpy, estimate the rate at which heat must be applied.
Solution
p k s
E E H W Q

A + A + A = H Q

A =
Figure 6.1-4
The temperature at which the vapor pressure of n-hexane
is 7 bar (104 psia) is a approximately 295F (146C).
Table B.1
C 69 molatT / kJ 85 . 28 H

bp v
= = A
) bar 7 , C 300 , v ( H C n ) atm 1 , C 69 , v ( H C n
) atm 1 , C 69 , l ( H C n ) bar 7 , C 25 , l ( H C n
14 6
H

14 6
H

14 6
H

14 6
G D
A


A A
A
}

+ A = A
C 69
C 25
) l ( H C p A
dT ) C ( P V

14 6
bar 013 . 1 atm 1
) C mol /( kJ 2163 . 0 C 2 . TableB
L / kg 659 . 0 659 . 0 SG 1 . TableB
p
=
=
= =
1 L 0.008314 kJ/(molK)

0.08314 Lbar/(molK)

0.659 kg

(1.013-7.0) bar

86.17 kg

1000 mol

= A
A
H

0.2163 kJ
molC

(69-725)C

+
mol / kJ 44 . 9 mol / kJ ) 517 . 9 0782 . 0 ( = + =
kg / kJ 85 . 28 ) atm 1 , C 69 ( ) H

( H

14 6
H C V D
= A = A
}

= A
C 300
C 69
) v ( H C p G
dT ) C ( H

14 6
3 12 2 8 5
v
T 10 66 . 57 T 10 92 . 23 T 10 85 . 40 13744 . 0
C mol
kJ
C

+ + =
|
.
|

\
|

mol / kJ 1 . 47 H

G
= A
) mol / kJ ( H

) h / mol ( n H Q A = A =

mol / kJ 5 . 85 H

G D A
= A + A + A = A
100 mol
mol

1 kW

1 kJ/s

h

85.5 kJ

1 h

3600 s

= Q

kW 38 . 2 =
If a phase change takes place in a closed system, you must evaluate for the
phase changes to substitute into the energy balance equation.
For phase changes such as fusion, which involve only liquids and solids, changes in are
generally negligible compared to changes in , so that



For vaporization, for the vapor (which equals RT if ideal gas behavior may be assumed)
is normally orders of magnitude greater than for the liquid, so that , and
) V

P ( H

A A = A
V

P
H

m m
H

A ~ A
V

P
RT ) V

P ( ~ A
V

P
RT H

v v
A ~ A
Test Yourself p. 381
8.4b Estimation and Correlation of Latent Heats
A simple formula for estimating a standard heat of vaporization ( at the normal
boiling point) is Troutons rule : (30% accuracy)
H

A
) talcohols ularweigh lowmolec , water ( ) K ( T 109 . 0
) iquids nonpolarl ( ) K ( T 088 . 0 ) mol / kJ ( H

b
b v
~
~ A
Another formula that provides roughly 2% accuracy is Chens equation:
T
b
: normal boiling point
) T / T ( 07 . 1
] P log 0297 . 0 0327 . 0 ) T / T ( 0331 . 0 [ T
) mol / kJ ( H

c b
c 10 c b b
v

+
= A
T
b
: normal boiling point (K)
T
c
: critical temperature (K)
P
c
: critical pressure (atm)
Latent heat of vaporization may be estimated from vapor pressure data by using the
Clausius-Clapeyron equation,
B
RT
H

* p ln
v
+
A
= t tan iscons H

v
A
t tan ns isnotco H

v
A
Clapeyron equation
R
H

) T / 1 ( d
*) p (ln d
v
A
= ) T ( f H

v
= A
Another formula that provides roughly 2% accuracy is Chens equation:
A useful approximation for estimating at T
2
from a known value at T
1
is
Watsons correlation:
v
H

A
38 . 0
1 c
2 c
1 v 2 v
T T
T T
) T ( H

) T ( H

|
|
.
|

\
|

A = A T
c
: critical temperature
) mpounds organicco ( ) K ( T 050 . 0
) compounds inorganic ( ) K ( T 0025 . 0 ) mol / kJ ( H

) lements metallice ( ) K ( T 0092 . 0

m
m m
m
~
~ A
~
Example 8.4-3
The normal boiling point of methanol is 337.9 K, and the critical temperature of
this substance is 513.2 K. Estimate the heat of vaporization of methanol at 200C.
Solution
mol / kJ 8 . 36 ) 9 . 337 )( 109 . 0 ( ) K 9 . 337 ( H

v
= = A
Troutons rule
(The measured value is 35.3 kJ/mol, Chens equation yields 37.2 kJ/mol, so in
this unusual case Troutons rule provides the better estimate.)
Watsons correlation
mol / kJ 0 . 21
9 . 337 2 . 513
473 2 . 513
8 . 36 ) K 473 ( H

38 . 0
v
=
|
.
|

\
|

= A
The measured value is 19.8 kJ/mol.
Test Yourself p. 382
8.4c Energy Balances on Processes Involving Phase Changes
When writing an energy balance on a process in which a component exists in two phases,
you must choose a reference states for that component by specifying both a phase and a
temperature and calculate the specific enthalpy of the component in all process streams
relative to this state.
If the substance is a liquid at its reference state and a vapor in a process stream, may
be calculated as outlined in Section 8.4a: that is, bring the liquid from the reference
temperature to a point at which is known, vaporize the liquid, bring the vapor to the
process stream temperature, and sum the individual enthalpy changes for the three steps.
H

v
H

A
Example 8.4-4
An equimolar liquid mixture of benzene (B) and toluene (T) at 10C is fed continuously
to a vessel in which the mixture is heated to 50C. The liquid products is 40 mole% B,
and the vapor product is 68.4 mole% B. How much heat must be transferred to the
mixture per mole of feed?
Solution
Basis: 1 mol Feed
Degree-of-Freedom Analysis
3 unknown variables (n
V
, n
L
, Q)
-2 material balances
-1 energy balance
0 degree of freedom
L V
L V
n 400 . 0 n 684 . 0 mol 50 . 0
n n mol 00 . 1
+ =
+ =
mol 648 . 0 n
mol 352 . 0 n
L
V
=
=
mol / kJ 332 . 5 dT ) C ( H

C 50
C 10
) l ( H C p 1
6 6
= = A
}

mol / kJ 340 . 6 dT ) C ( H

C 50
C 10
) l ( H C p 2
8 7
= = A
}

mol / kJ 52 . 37 dT ) C ( ) C 1 . 80 ( ) H

( dT ) C ( H

C 50
C 1 . 80
) v ( H C p H C v
C 1 . 80
C 10
) l ( H C p 3
6 6 6 6 6 6
= + A + = A
} }

mol / kJ 93 . 42 dT ) C ( ) C 62 . 110 ( ) H

( dT ) C ( H

C 50
C 62 . 110
) v ( H C p H C v
C 62 . 110
C 10
) l ( H C p 4
8 7 8 7 8 7
= + A + = A
} }

i
in
i i
out
i
H

n H

n H Q

= A =
kJ 7 . 17 Q =