Seismicity of India

Lecture-7
1
Indian subcontinent is historically proven to be vulnerable to earthquakes.

The movement of Indian plate at a rate of approximately 47 mm/year is the
source of seismicity and slowly rotating anticlockwise.

The Himalayas have risen as a result of a collision between the drifting of the
Indian plate and the Tibetan plate of South Asia about 50 million years ago.

About 54% of the land in India is vulnerable to earthquakes.

The latest version of seismic zoning map of India given in the earthquake
resistant design code of India [IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002] assigns four levels of
seismicity for India in terms of zone factors

The earthquake zoning map of India divides India into 4 seismic zones (Zone 2,
3, 4 and 5) unlike its previous version which consisted of five or six zones for the
country. According to the present zoning map, Zone 5 expects the highest level
of seismicity whereas Zone 2 is associated with the lowest level of seismicity.
Introduction
2
India is unique as far as earthquakes are concerned. The northern part of India,
the Himalayan frontal arc, is one of the seismically most active regions in the
world.

Arc-normal convergence across the Himalaya results in the development of
potential slip available to drive large thrust earthquakes beneath the Himalayas.

Nearly 56% of the subcontinent is prone to different levels of seismic hazard. This
is amply demonstrated by the fact that more than 650 earthquakes in excess of M
5 have been recorded in India in the last one century.

Four great earthquakes (>8.0M) have occurred in a the period 1897-1950 the
largest subsequent earthquake occurred in Gujarat in 2001.

The 1967 earthquake at Koyna of M 6.3 in Western India confirmed that
peninsular India, believed until then to be aseismic, is vulnerable to earthquakes.
1993 Killari earthquake of M 6.4 in the Latur was also unexpected and caused lot
of damage.
Seismicity of India
3
The Indian landmass, covering an area of about 3.2 million sq km, has three broad
morphotectonic provinces, namely

i) Himalaya and Tertiary mobile belt
ii) Indo-Gangetic foredeep
iii) Peninsular shield

All of these areas are characterized by distinctive stratigraphic, tectonic and deep
crustal features.

The Himalaya marks the largest active continent-continent collision zone that has
witnessed four great earthquakes in a short time span of 53 years between 1897
and 1950.

The Peninsular India is a mosaic of Archaean nucleus with peripheral Proterozoic
mobile belts, Cretaceous volcanism and rift-drift Mesozoic passive coastal basins.
Tectonic Provinces of India
4
Seismicity of India
Zone V: Highest risk zone
Zone IV: High damage risk zone
Zone III: Moderate damage risk zone
Zone II : Low damage risk zone
IS 1893 (Part 1) 2002 5


Major & moderate earthquakes in India
DATE
EPICENTER
LOCATION MAGNITUDE
Lat(Deg N) Long(Deg E)
1819 June 16 23.6 68.6 KUTCH,GUJARAT 8.0
1869 JAN 10 25 93 NEAR CACHAR, ASSAM 7.5
1885 MAY 30 34.1 74.6 SOPOR, J&K 7.0
1897 JUN 12 26 91 SHILLONG PLATEAU 8.7
1905 APR 04 32.3 76.3 KANGRA, H.P 8.0
1918 JUL 08 24.5 91.0 SRIMANGAL, ASSAM 7.6
1930 JUL 02 25.8 90.2 DHUBRI, ASSAM 7.1
1934 JAN 15 26.6 86.8 BIHAR-NEPAL BORDER 8.3
1941 JUN 26 12.4 92.5 ANDAMAN ISLANDS 8.1
1943 OCT 23 26.8 94.0 ASSAM 7.4
1950 AUG 15 28.5 96.7 ARUNACHAL PRADESH-CHINA BORDER 8.5
1956 JUL 21 23.3 70.0 ANJAR, GUJARAT 7.0
1967 DEC 10 17.37 73.75 KOYNA, MAHARASHTRA 6.5
1975 JAN 19 32.38 78.49 KINNAUR, HP 6.2
1988 AUG 06 25.13 95.15 MANIPUR-MYANMAR BORDER 6.6
1988 AUG 21 26.72 86.63 BIHAR-NEPAL BORDER 6.4
1991 OCT 20 30.75 78.86 UTTARKASHI, UP HILLS 6.6
1993 SEP 30 18.07 76.62 LATUR-OSMANABAD, MAHARASHTRA 6.3
1997 MAY 22 23.08 80.06 JABALPUR, MP 6.0
1999 MAR 29 30.41 79.42 CHAMOLI DIST, UP 6.8
2001 JAN 26 23.0 70.0 BHUJ, GUJARAT
7.6
2005 Oct 08 34.43N 73.54E KASHMIR
7.6
2011 Sept 18 27.723N 88.064E SIKKIM
6.9


Seismicity of India
6
Movement of Indian Plate
7
Source: wikipedia
India Colliding with Asia
Fig: Plate tectonic Movements around the globe
8
Source: wikipedia
Indian plate subducting
9
Source: wikipedia
Movement of Indian Plate
Indian Plate is subducting
beneath Eurasian Plate

This is a convergent boundary,
involving mountain building
activity and seismicity.

10
Source: wikipedia
Distribution of earthquakes in India. Source: India Meteorological Department (IMD)
Seismicity of India
(1505 to March,2010) (M>5.0)
11
Uttarkashi earthquake, 1991
Earthquake of M
w
6.8 of October 20, 1991 occurred in
the western Himalayan collision zone.

The earthquake is followed by about 125 aftershocks
(M>2.0). The main shock occurred at a depth of 15 km
and the aftershocks occurred at a depth of 015 km.

This is the first strong event in the Himalaya which was
well studied.

The fault plane solution suggested that the main shock
occurred on a low angle thrust faulting, and the
aftershocks show a reverse faulting.

Peak horizontal acceleration observed in this earthquake
was about 0.309 g.
12
Source: wikipedia
Chamoli earthquake, 1999
Earthquake of M
w
6.8 of March 28, 1999 occurred in
the western Himalayas. The epicenter for this
earthquake lies about 100 km southeast of the 1991
Uttarkashi earthquake.

The earthquake is followed by about 1000 aftershocks
(M>2.5).

The focus of the earthquake was about 21 km deep.
The maximum intensity is bounded by the Main Central Thrust (MCT) to the
north
and by the Alokananda Fault (ANF) to the south. Seismic section of the main
shock and the aftershocks shows that the main shock occurred on the Plane of
detachment, basement thrust zone, where the ANF ends, and the main shock
activated the ANF to generate the aftershocks.
13
Source: wikipedia
Bhuj earthquake, 2001
Gujarat Earthquake of M
w
7.7 of January 26, 2001 with Bhuj as
epicenter is one of the largest earthquakes occurred in India

Bhuj earthquake is the second largest event in the western
margin of peninsular India after the 1819 great Kutch
earthquake ( M
w
8.0)

This earthquake is an example of a deeper paleo-rift basin
earthquake which occurred at a depth of 25 km in the Kutch
Rift Basin.

The earthquake is followed by about 1000 aftershocks (M>2.0)
involving complicated earthquake process.

The fault interaction models illustrated that the main shock
originated at the base of the paleo-rift basin by reverse faulting
on a deep seated south dipping hidden fault and the
aftershocks occurred by leftlateral strike-slip motion.

Peak horizontal acceleration observed in this earthquake was
about 0.1 g.
14
Source: wikipedia
Reservoir Induced Seismicity
In many cases, reservoir impoundment has produced large
earthquakes in India.
Koyna earthquake of 1967 is a perfect example for reservoir induced
earthquakes.
There is evidence linking earth tremors and reservoir operation for
more than 70 dams.
Reservoirs are believed to have induced five out of the nine
earthquakes on the Indian peninsula in the 1980s which were strong
enough to cause damage.
Reservoir induced seismicity (RIS) is well documented but relatively
poorly understood.

15
t
s
n
When the pressure of the water (u) in the rocks increases, it acts to
reduce the normal load (s
n
) on fault planes thereby reducing the
frictional resistance mobilized and increasing the tendency to shear.
t = c + (s
n
u)

tan(f)
where t is the shearing resistance
c is the cohesion and
f is the friction angle
Note that the principal stresses remain in the same orientation.
Reservoir induced seismicity is
widely explained related to the
extra water pressure created as
the reservoir fills.

Reservoir Induced Seismicity
16
t
s
n
In this case the normal load (s
n
) on fault plane has increased but the
deviatoric stress has changed more to induce failure
t = c + s
n
tan(f)
where t is the shearing resistance
c is the cohesion and
f is the friction angle
Note that in this case the orientation of the principal stresses are
changed and that this mechanism will only trigger normal faults
where s
1
is vertical.
The reservoir induced
earthquakes could also be
explained in terms of increase
in the vertical principal stress
as a result of the weight of
impounded water.

Reservoir Induced Seismicity
17
Koyna earthquake, 1967
Earthquake of M
w
6.5 of December 11, 1967 occurred in
Maharashtra, with Koynanagar as epicenter.

There have been several earthquakes of smaller magnitude
there since 1967.

This earthquake had caused a 10-15 cm fissure in the
ground which spread over a length of 25 km.
Seismicity at Koyna has close correlation with the filling cycles of the Koyna reservoir.

The 1967 Koyna event, in the watershed of the Krishna River in Maharashtra state, is a
classic example of earthquake activity triggered by reservoir.

The world's worst confirmed reservoir-induced earthquake was triggered by the Koyna
Dam.

18
Source: wikipedia
The height of the Koyna-Dam is 103 m, reservoir volume is 2.7810
9
m
3
.
Seasonal fluctuations of the lake level are typically 30 to 35 m and are
dominated by monsoon rainfalls.
The site is now highly instrumented and the subject of active research
Since its first impoundment in
1962, more than 150
earthquakes of magnitude 4.0
have been recorded.
Events are mostly restricted to
an area 40 25 km
2
south of
the Koyna-Dam.
This marks the area as probably
the best in the world to study
the phenomenon of reservoir
induced/triggered seismicity
(RIS).

Koyna Dam Earthquake
19
Killari earthquake, 1993
Earthquake of M
w
6.4 of September 30, 1993 occurred in
Deccan province of central India.

The earthquake is followed by about 150 aftershocks
(M>2.0). This is a shallow earthquake with the main shock
as well as aftershocks confined to a depth of 015 km.

The earthquake occurred by reverse faulting at a depth of 6
km. The deeper aftershocks (615 km) also occurred by
reverse faulting but the shallower aftershocks (<6 km)
occurred by right-lateral strike-slip faulting.

The Killari earthquake was about 10 km from the Lower
Tirna Reservoir and the reservoir level was low at the time
of the main shock, which is consistent with the expected
negative effect of the loading by the reservoir on an
underlying thrust fault. Whether the Killari earthquake was
triggered by the Lower Tirna reservoir is under debate.
20
Source: wikipedia
The Killari earthquake is considered the most devastating SCR (Stable
Continental Region) event in the world. It is the most puzzling event in
Peninsular India.

The earthquake struck Killari, Maharashtra in 1993, killing 10,000 people.

The event was totally unexpected as it was located in the Deccan Trap-
covered stable Indian Shield. There was no record of any historical
earthquake in the region.

Some seismologists believe that the Killari event was triggered by a
nearby (Tirna) reservoir.
Killari earthquake, 1993
21
The Killari earthquake was about 10 km from the Lower Tirna Reservoir.

The maximum water depth is about 20m, which is at the low end of the
range of depths of reservoirs where induced seismicity has been
documented.

The reservoir level was low at the time of the main shock, which is
consistent with the expected negative effect of the loading by the
reservoir on an underlying thrust fault.

Several other recent earthquakes in peninsular India appear to be
located close to reservoirs.

Whether the Killari earthquake was triggered by the Lower Tirna
reservoir is not known, but it cannot be ruled out.
Killari earthquake, 1993
22
Jabalpur Earthquake, 1997
Earthquake of M
w
6.0 of May 22, 1997 occurred in
Jabalpur in Madhya Pradesh, Narmada Valley, Central
India.

The epicenter of this earthquake is believed to have
been about 20-40 kilometers from Bargi Dam, which
completed filling in 1990.

Indian seismologists have noted an increase in seismic
activity in the Narmada Valley over the past 20 years,
which may be linked to reservoir impoundment.
In the Narmada Valley, a series of tremors were felt soon after the completion of the
Sukta Dam.

This earthquake has focused attention on the seismic risks faced by the large dams
planned for the Narmada Valley, and on the risk of reservoir-induced earthquakes.
23
Source: wikipedia
Source: India Meteorological Department (IMD)
National Seismic Network
24
Seismic Microzonation of India
Seismic microzonation is defined as the process of subdividing a region into zones
that have relatively similar exposure to various earthquake-related effects with
respect to some geological and geophysical characteristics of the sites such as
ground shaking, liquefaction susceptibility, landslide and rock fall hazard,
earthquake-related flooding, so that seismic hazards at different locations within
the area can correctly be identified.

Earthquake waves incident at different sites with variable physical properties
generate variable site response, which if predicted, could be used for preparation
of seismic microzonation maps of relative hazards.

Seismic microzonation is based on the principles of site specific ground response
and liquefaction studies. A seismic microzone takes into account local site
conditions like soil, topography, proximity to faults etc. Primarily it is a geographical
delineation of variations in the potential for earthquake hazards.

In this context 'Seismic Hazard and Risk Microzonation' (SHRM) projects for
different cities of India are in progress.
25
26
http://www.imd.gov.in/section/seismo/static/seismicity-map.htm (Accessed on
14 April 2012)
Recent Large Earthquakes in India: Seismotectonic Perspective:
www.isfep.com/Kayal%20Article.pdf (Accessed on 14 April 2012)
Earthquakes in India: http://cires.colorado.edu/~bilham/Erice.htm (Accessed
on 14 April 2012)
Indian earthquakes: An overview www.nicee.org/readings/paper4.pdf
(Accessed on 14 April 2012)
Indian Seismicity and past earthquakes: http://www.iitgn.ac.in/web-
GEE/GAEE%20Handouts/IndianSeismicity_SKJ.pdf (Accessed on 14 April 2012)
Earthquakes in India and Himalayas: Tectonics, geodesy and history
www.earth-prints.org/bitstream/2122/798/1/36Bilham.pdf (Accessed on 14
April 2012)
Sources