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Oxidation and Reduction

LEO SAYS GER


Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of
Oxygen/Hydrogen Transfer

Understanding Oxidation and Reduction
Oxidation and reduction can be understood from the
aspect of:
Losing or gaining oxygen
Losing or gaining hydrogen
Transferring of electron
Changing of oxidation number
Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Oxygen
Transfer
Oxidation is the process of gaining oxygen.
Reduction is the process of losing oxygen.
For example, in the extraction of iron from its ore:
Iron(III) oxide loses oxygen. Iron(III) oxide is
reduced to iron. This is a reduction process.
Carbon monoxide gains oxygen. Carbon nonoxide is
oxidised to become carbon dioxide. This is an
oxidising process.
Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Hydrogen Transfer
Oxidation is the process of losing hydrogen.
Reduction is the process of gaining hydrogen.
For example, ethanol can be oxidised to ethanal:
Ammonia loses hydrogen. Ammonia is oxidised to become
nitrogen. This is an oxidation process.
Bromine gains hydrogen. Bromine is reduced to become
hydrogen bromide. This is a reduction process.
Example:
Combustion of Magnesium in Air
Magnesium is oxidised to become magnesium oxide.
Displacement of copper(II) oxide by Carbon
Copper(II) oxide is reduced to become copper metal
Carbon is oxidised to become carbon dioxide.
Displacement of lead(II) oxide by Zinc
Zinc is oxidised to become zinc oxide.
Lead(II) oxide is reduced to become lead metal
Reaction between Magnesium and Steam
Water is reduced to become hydrogen gas.
Magnesium is oxidised to become magnesium oxide.
Hydrogen Sulphide Reacts with Chlorine
Hydrogen sulphide is oxidised to become sulphur.
Chlorine is reduced to become hydrogen peroxide.
Copper(II) oxide Reacts with Ammonia
Copper(II) oxide is reduced to become copper(II) metal.
Ammonia is oxidised to become nitrogen gas.
Oxidation and Reduction in Terms of Electron Transfer
Oxidation occurs when a reactant loses electron.
Reduction occurs when a reactant gain of electron.
Example:
CuO + Mg Cu + MgO
In this reaction,
copper (II) ion in
copper(II) oxide gains 2
electrons to form copper
metal.
Half equation:
Cu
2+
+ 2e Cu
This is a reduction process.
Magnesium metal loses 2
electrons to form
magnesium ions in
magnesium oxide.
Half equation:
Mg Mg
2+
+ 2e
This is a oxidation process.
Summary
Magnesium is oxidised because it loses2 electrons
to form magnesium ion, Mg
2+
.
Copper(II) oxide is reduced because copper(II) ion
gains 2 electrons to form copper metal, Cu.
Oxidation States (Oxidation Numbers)

Oxidation state shows the total number of electrons
which have been removed from an element (a positive
oxidation state) or added to an element (a negative
oxidation state) to get to its present state.
Oxidation State of Some Elements

1. The oxidation state of an element is
zero.
Element Oxidation
State
Mg 0
H
2
0
Br
2
0


2. For a simple ion with single atom, the oxidation state is
equal to the charge.
Ion Oxidation State
Cu
2+
+2
Br
-
-1
O
2-
-2
Al
3+
+3


3. Some elements almost always have the same oxidation
states in their compounds:
Example 1: The oxidation state of oxygen is always -2
except peroxide, which is -1.
Compound Oxidation state of oxygen
H
2
O -2
H
2
SO
4
-2
ZnO -2
KClO
3
-2
H
2
O
2
-1
Example 2: The oxidation state of hydrogen is always +1
except hydride, which is -1.
Compound Oxidation state of
hydrogen
NH
3
+1
HCl +1
NaOH +1
MgH
2
-1
NaH -1
4. The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms or
molecule in a neutral compound is zero.
Ion Sum of Oxidation State
H
2
O 0
CO
2
0
NH
3
0
5. The sum of the oxidation states of all the atoms in an ion
is equal to the charge on the ion.
Ion Sum of Oxidation State
NO
3
-
-1
CO
3
2-
-2
PO
4
3-
-3
NH
4
+
+1

Working Out the Unknown Oxidation State of an
Element in A Compound
The sum of the oxidation state of each element in a
compound are equal to the charge of the compound.
This rule can be used to find the unknown oxidation
number of an element is a compound.
Example 1
Find the oxidation state of all the elements in a
Chlorate(V), ClO
3
-
ion.

Answer:
Oxidation number of O = -2

Oxidation number of Cl = x
x + 3(-2) = -1
x = -1 + 6 = +5
Example 2
Find the oxidation state of all the elements in a
Potassium manganate(VII), KMnO
4
ion.

Answer:
Oxidation number of K = +1

Oxidation number of O = -2

Oxidation number of Mn = x

(+1) + x + 4(-2) = 0
x = -1 + 8
x = +7
Example 3
Find the oxidation state of all the elements in an
Ammonium ion, NH
4
+
ion.

Answer:
Oxidation number of H = +1

Oxidation number of N = x

x + 4(+1) = +1
x = +1 - 4
x = -3
Using Oxidation States in Naming Compounds
1. You will have come across names like iron(II)
sulphate and iron(III) chloride. The (II) and (III)
are the oxidation states of the iron in the two
compounds: +2 and +3 respectively. That tells you
that they contain Fe
2+
and Fe
3+
ions.
Example
Formula Name of the compound
FeCl
2
Iron(II) chloride
FeCl
3
Iron (III) chloride
MnO
2
Manganese(IV) oxide
Mn(NO
3
)
2
Manganese (II) nitrate
PbCl
2
Lead(II) chloride

2. Transition metals always show difference oxidation
state as shown in the table below.
Metal Oxidation state
Fe +2, +3
Cu +1, +2
Mn +2, +4, +6, +7
3. Non-metal elements (except fluorine) usually have
more than one oxidation state.
Oxidation and Reduction in Term of Changes of
Oxidation State
Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation state
Reduction involves a decrease in oxidation state
1. Another way to determine oxidation and reduction is
to see the change of the oxidation state after a
reaction.
2. An atom is said to be oxidised when its oxidation
state increases.
3. An atom is said to be reduced when its oxidation
state decreases.

Example:
1. The magnesium's oxidation state has increased by 2,
from 0 to +2. Therefore, it has been oxidised.
2. The hydrogen's oxidation state has decreased by 1,
from +1 to 0. Therefore it has been reduced.
3. The chlorine is in the same oxidation state on both
sides of the equation - it hasn't been oxidised nor
reduced.
Example:
There is no change of oxidation state for all
elements. This isn't a redox reaction.
Example:
1. In this example, we can see that the oxidation state of
chlorine has increased and also decreased.
2. Chlorine is oxidised and reduced, at the same time.
3. This is a good example of
a disproportionation reaction. A disproportionation
reaction is one in which a single substance is both
oxidised and reduced.
Redox Reaction
A redox reaction is a chemical reaction that involves
reduction and oxidation that occurs simultaneously.
1. A redox reaction is a chemical reaction that involves
reduction and oxidation that occurs simultaneously.
2. In a redox reaction, both reduction and oxidation are
going on side-by-side.
3. As we have learned, oxidation and reduction can be
defined in terms of
loss or gain of oxygen
loss or gain of hydrogen
transfer of electrons
change in oxidation number
The redox reaction that you need to know in SPM
includes
1. Redox reaction in aqueous solution
changing of iron(II) ions to ions(III) and vice
versa
displacement of hydrogen
displacement of halogens
transfer of electrons at a distance
2. Electrochemistry
3. Corrosion of metals
4. Combustion of metals
5. Rusting of iron
6. Extraction of metal
Oxidising Agents and Reduction Agents
1. In a redox reaction, compound that is reduced is
oxidizing agent. An oxidising agent is substance which
oxidises something else.
2. Inversely, compound that is oxidised is reducing
agent. A reducing agent reduces something else.
Example:
1. In this reaction, iron(III) oxide is reduced.
Therefore it is the oxidising agent. It has oxidised
carbon monoxide to become carbon dioxide.
2. The carbon monoxide is oxidised. Therefore it act
as the reducing agent. It has reduced iron(III)
oxide to become iron metal.
Example:

1. copper(II) oxide is reduced, hence it is the
oxidising agent.
2. carbon is oxidised, hence it is the reducing agent.
Commonly Used Oxidising and Reducing Agent and
Their Half Equation
Oxidising Agent

Acided Potassium Manganate (VII)
MnO
4
-
+ 8H
+
+ 5e Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O

Acided Potassium Dicromate (VI)
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 14H
+
+ 6e 2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O

Hydrogen Peroxide
H
2
O
2
+ 2H
+
+ 2e 2H
2
O

Concentrated Nitric Acid
NO
3
-
+ 4H
+
+ 3e NO + 2H
2
O
Reducing Agent

Sulphur Dioxide
SO
2
+ 2H
2
O SO
4
2-
+ 4H
+
+ 2e

Hydrogen Sulphide
H
2
S 2H
+
+ S + 2e

Sodium Sulphite Aqueous
SO
3
2-
+ H
2
O SO
4
2-
+ 2H
+
+ 2e

Tin(II) Chloride Aqueous
Sn
2+
Sn
4+
+ 2e
Forming Ionic Equation from the Half Equation
1. Ionic equation of a redox reaction can be
formed from the half equations of the
reaction.
2. When writing the ionic equation, make
sure that the number of electrons in
both the oxidation reaction and
reduction reaction are balance.
Example:
Redox reaction between potassium iodide and potassium
manganate (VII)

Half equations
2I
-
I
2
+ 2e -------(1)
MnO
4
-
+ 8H
+
+ 5e Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O -------(2)

To make the number of electrons in both chemical equation
equal
(1) x 5
10I
-
5I
2
+ 10e
(2) x 2
2MnO
4
-
+ 16H
+
+ 10e 2Mn
2+
+ 8H
2
O
Ionic Equations
Add the 2 equations together. Exclude the electrons.

10I
-
+ 2MnO
4
-
+ 16H
+
5I
2
+ 2Mn
2+
+ 8H
2
O
Example:
Redox reaction between iron(II) sulphate and potassium
dicromate(VI)

Half equations
Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e -------(1)
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 14H
+
+ 6e 2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O -------(2)

To make the number of electrons in both chemical equation
equal
(1) x 6
6Fe
2+
6Fe
3+
+ 6e
(2)
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 14H
+
+ 6e 2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O
Ionic Equations
Add the 2 equations together. Exclude the electrons.

6Fe
2+
+ Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 14H
+
6Fe
3+
+ 2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O
Example:
Redox reaction between iron(III) nitrate and sulphur dioxide
gas

Half equations
Fe
3+
Fe
2+
+ e -------(1)
SO
2
+ 2H
2
O SO
4
2-
+ 4H
+
+ 2e -------(2)

To make the number of electrons in both chemical equation
equal
(1) x 2
2Fe
3+
2Fe
2+
+ 2e
(2)
SO
2
+ 2H
2
O SO
4
2-
+ 4H
+
+ 2e
Ionic Equations
Add the 2 equations together. Exclude the electrons.

2Fe
3+
+ SO
2
+ 2H
2
O 2Fe
2+
+ SO
4
2-
+ 4H
+

Example:
Redox reaction between iron(III) chloride and hydrogen
sulphide gas

Half equations
Fe
3+
Fe
2+
+ e -------(1)
H
2
S 2H
+
+ S + 2e -------(2)

To make the number of electrons in both chemical equation
equal
(1) x 2
2Fe
3+
2Fe
2+
+ 2e
(2)
H
2
S 2H
+
+ S + 2e
Ionic Equations
Add the 2 equations together. Exclude the electrons.

2Fe
3+
+ H
2
S 2Fe
2+
+ 2H
+
+ S
Oxidation Reduction Redox
Reaction
Oxidising
Agent
Reducing
Agent
A gain in
oxygen
A loss of
oxygen
Transfer of
oxygen
Donor of
oxygen
Acceptor of
oxygen
A loss of
hydrogen
A gain in
hydrogen
Transfer of
hydrogen
Acceptor of
hydrogen
Donor of
hydrogen
A loss of
electron
A gain of
electrons
Transfer of
electron
Acceptor of
electrons
Donor of
electrons
An increase in
oxidation
number
A decrease in
oxidation
number
A change in
oxidation
number
Its oxidation
number
decreases
Its oxidation
number
increases
Redox reaction in aqueous solution
Change of Iron(II) Ion to Iron(III) Ion
1. Iron shows two oxidation numbers, that is +2
and +3.
2. The aqueous solution of iron(II) ion Fe
2+
is light
green in colour. The aqueous solution of
iron(III) ion Fe
3+
is brown in colour.
3. The change of iron(II) ion for iron(III) ion is
an oxidation process. This can be done by
mixing an oxidation agent.
Example
1. 2 cm of iron(II) sulphate solution is poured into a test
tube.
2. Bromine water is added drop by drop into the solution
until no further changes are observed.
3. The mixture is then shaken and warmed gently.
4. The observation is recorded.


Procedure:
Observation:
1. The brown colour of bromine water turns colourless.
2. The colour of the solution changes from light green to
yellowish brown.
Half Equations:

Fe
2+
Fe
3+
+ e

Br
2
+ 2e 2Br
-

Ionic Equation

2Fe
2+
+ Br
2
2Fe
3+
+ 2Br
-

Explanation:
1. The light green colour of iron(II) sulphate solution
turns brown because iron(II) ions Fe
2+
are oxidise
2. to become iron(III) ion, Fe
3+
.
3. Iron(II) ion, Fe
2+
undergoes oxidation by releasing
electron to form iron(III) ion, Fe
3+
.
4. The brown colour of bromine water turn colourless
because bromine molecules are reduced to become
bromide ions.
5. Bromine molecules receive electrons and
undergoesreduction to form bromide ion, Br.
Oxidising agent: Bromine water
Reducing agent: Iron(II) ions Fe
2+

Confirmation Test
2 cm of solution of the product is filled into a test tube.

Test 1 : Dilute sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) is then
added into the test tube until excess.
Result : Brown precipitate formed. The precipitate does not
dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide solution.

Test 2 : Dilute ammonium hydroxide solution
(NH
4
OH)/ammonia aqueous (NH
3
) is then added into the test
tube until excess
Result :Brown precipitate formed. The precipitate does not
dissolve in excess ammonium hydroxide solution /ammonia
aqueous.

Test 3 : 2cm of potassium thiocyanate is added into the
test tube.
Result : Red blood solution formed.
Other oxidation agents that get to replace bromine water

1) Chlorine water
Half Equations
Cl
2
+ 2e 2Cl
-

2) Acidic potassium manganate (VII)
Half Equations
MnO
4
-
+ 8H
+
+ 5e Mn
2+
+ 4H
2
O
3) Potassium dichromate (VI)
Half Equations
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 14H
+
+ 6e 2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O
4) Hydrogen peroxide
Half Equations
H
2
O
2
+ 2H
+
+ 2e 2H
2
O
5) Concentrated nitric acid
Half Equations
NO
3
-
+ 4H
+
+ 3e NO + 2H
2
O
Change of Iron(III) Ion to Iron(II) Ion
1. The change of iron(III) ion for iron(II) ion is a reduction process.
This can be done by mixing a reducing agent.
Procedure:
1. 2 cm of iron(III) sulphate solution is poured into a
test tube.
2. Half spatula of zinc powder is added into the solution.
3. The mixture is then shaken and warmed gently.
4. The observation is recorded.
Observation:
1. Zinc powder dissolves.
2. The brown coloured of iron(III) sulphate solution
turn light green.
Half Equations:

Fe
3+
Fe
2+
+ e
Zn Zn
2+
+ 2e

Ionic Equation

2Fe
3+
+ Zn 2Fe
2+
+ Zn
2+

Explanation:
1. The brown colour of iron(III) sulphate solution
turns light green shows that iron(III) ions, Fe
3+
are
2. reduced to iron(II) ion, Fe
2+
.
3. Iron(III) ion, Fe
3+
undergoes reduction by receiving
electron to form iron(II) ion,Fe
2+

4. Zinc powder added is oxidised to form zinc
ion, Zn
2+
.
Oxidising agent: Iron(III) ions Fe
3+

Reducing agent: Zinc powder
Confirmation Test
2 cm of solution of the product is filled into a test tube.

Test 1 : Dilute sodium hydroxide solution (NaOH) is then
added into the test tube until excess.
Result : Dirty green precipitate formed. The precipitate does
not dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide solution.

Test 2 : Dilute ammonium hydroxide solution
(NH
4
OH)/ammonia aqueous (NH
3
) is then added into the test
tube until excess
Result : Green precipitate formed. The precipitate does not
dissolve in excess ammonium hydroxide solution /ammonia
aqueous.

Test 3 : 2cm of potassium thiocyanate is added into the test
tube.
Result : No change observed
Other oxidation agents that get to replace bromine water

1) Magnesium
Half Equations
Mg Mg
2+
+ 2e
2) Sulphur dioxide gas
Half Equations
SO
2
+ 2H
2
O SO
4
2-
+ 4H
+
+ 2e
3) Hydrogen sulphide gas
Half Equations
H
2
S 2H
+
+ S + 2e
4) Solution of sodium sulphide, Na
2
SO
3

Half Equations
SO
3
2-
+ H
2
O SO
4
2-
+ 2H
+
+ 2e
5) Solution of tin(II) Chloride
Half Equations
Sn
2+
Sn
4+
+ 2e
Displacement of Metal
1. The electrochemical series is a series of
arrangement of metals according to the order of
the tendency of the metal to lose electrons to
form positive ions.
2. Elements which placed higher in the

electrochemical series
are more electropositive
act as strong reducing agent
can be oxidised easily

3. The metal ions are weak oxidising agents because
they do not have a tendency to gain electrons.

















4. In a reaction of displacement of metal, a metal which is
placed on the top of the electrochemical series (more
electropositive) can displace other metals that lie below it (
less electropositive) from its salt solution.
5. So,
there is a transfer of electrons from a more
electropositive metal to the ions of a metal which is less
electropositive.
The more electropositive metal acts as a reducing agent.
The metal experiences oxidation and is oxidised to a
metal ion.
The metal ion which is less electropositive acts as an
oxidising agent. This ion experiences reduction and is
reduced to a metal.
Examples
Reaction between magnesium and copper(II) sulphate solution

Mg + CuSO
4
MgSO
4
+ Cu

Observation:

The blue colour of copper(II) sulphate solution turn colourless.

Half Equation:
Mg Mg
2+
+ 2e
Cu
2+
+ 2e Cu

Ionic Equation:

Mg + Cu
2+


Mg
2+
+ Cu


Note:
1. Magnesium is more electropositive than copper.
2. In the reaction, magnesium displaced copper(II) ions
from the solution.
3. Magnesium is oxidised by releasing 2 electrons.
4. Copper(II) ion is reduced by receiving 2 electrons
from magnesium.
Oxidising agent: Copper(II) ion
Reducing agent: Magnesium
Displacement of Halogen From Halide Solution


1.Halogens are elements in Group 17 of the Periodic Table of
Elements. They are fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine,
astatine.
2.All halogens tend to accept one electron to form negative
ions. For instance,
3.The ions of halogen are called halide.
4.The electronegativity of halogens decreases down the
group, as shown in the chart below:
Cl
2
+ 2e 2C1
-
5.Halogen which placed higher in group 17
are more electronegative
act as strong oxidising agent
can be reduced easily
6. The halogen which is at a higher position in group 17 (
more electronegative and reactive) can displace a halogen
that is below it (less electronegative and less reactive)
from its solution of halide ions.
7. When the displacement reaction of the halogen occurs:

transfer of electrons from the halide ions which are
positioned further down in group 17 to halogens
which are positioned further up occurs.
Halogens which are positioned further up in group 17
act as oxidation agents.
These halogens undergo reduction and are reduced
to halide ions. The halide ions which are positioned
further down in group 17 act as reducing agents.
These ions undergo oxidation and are oxidised to
halogens.


Example
Reaction between Chlorine water and Potassium Bromide
solution.
Procedure
1. A few drops of chlorine water are added to 2 cm of
potassium bromide solution.
2. 2 cm of tetrachloromethane is then added into the
mixture and shaken.
3. The colour of the tetrachloromethane (the lower layer)
is recorded.
Observation:
The colourless tetrachloromethane turn brown. This indicates
that bromine is presence in the solution.

Half Equation:
2Br
-
Br
2
+ 2e
Cl
2
+ 2Cl
-
Cl
2

Ionic Equation:
Cl
2
+ 2Br
-


2Cl
-
+ Br
2

Note:
1. Chlorine is more electronegative than bromine.
2. In the reaction, chlorine molecules displaced bromide ions
in the solution.
3. Bromide ion is oxidised by releasing electrons to become
bromine.
4. Chlorine molecule is reduced by receiving electrons from
bromide ion.
Oxidising agent: Chlorine
Reducing agent: Bromide
Identifying Halogens in a Solution
1. If halogen or halide ions are involved, usually a
confirmatory test is required to testify the presence of
the halogen or halides. The tetrachloromethane can be
used in the halogen confirmatory test.
2. This can be done by shaking the aqueous halogen solution in
a little tetrachloromethane. Two layer; are formed.
Tetrachloromethane which is denser forms a layer below
while the aqueous solution forms a layer on top. So, the
halogen present can be confirmed by the colour of the
halogen in tetrachloromethane.
3. The identity of chlorine, bromine and iodine cannot be
confirmed through the colour of its aqueous solution
because its colour changes depending on its concentration.
4. Halide solutions in water are colourless. For example,
solution of NaCl, NaBr, NaI, KCl, KBr and KI are colourless.
Halogen Colour of aqueous solution Colour of halogen in
tetrachloromethane
Chlorine Pale yellow and almost
colourless
Pale yellow and almost colourless
Bromine Brown or yellowish brown or
yellow
depending on concentration
Brown or reddish yellow or yellow
depending on concentration
Iodine Brown or yellowish brown or
yellow
depending on concentration
Purple
Transfer of Electrons from One Point to Another
1. A redox reaction occurs when a solution of an oxidising
agent is mixed with a solution of a reducing agent.
2. If the solution of the oxidising agent and the solution of
the reducing agent are separated by an electrolyte in a
U-tube, the redox reaction will still take place but the
transfer of electrons will occur through the connecting
wire.
3. The reducing agent undergoes oxidation with the
loss of electrons. So, the carbon electrode that is
immersed in the solution of the reducing agent
becomes the negative cell terminal.
4. Electrons flow through the connecting wire to the
carbon electrode that is immersed in the oxidising
agent solution. The carbon electrode acts as the
positive cell terminal.
5. The oxidising agent undergoes reduction with the
acceptance of electrons.
Guide to Solve Problems Related to the Transfer of
Electrons Through a Distance
1. Oxidation always happens at anode.
2. Reduction always happens at cathode.
3. Anode is the negative terminal.
4. Cathode is the positive terminal.
Reaction Between Potassium Dichromate(VI) and Potassium
Iodide
Step 1: Identifying the Oxidising Agent and
Reducing Agent
Oxidising Agent: Potassium dichromate(VI)
Reducing Agent: Potassium Iodide

Step 2: Determining the Oxidation and Reduction Process
and Predicting the Observation
Oxidation
The reducing agent (Potassium Iodide) undergoes oxidation
2I
-
--> I
2
+ 2e

Observation: The colourless solution turn yellow/orange.

Note: Potassium iodide is colourless whereas iodine is yellow or orange in colour
when dissolve in water.

Reduction
The oxidising agent undergoes reduction
Cr
2
O
7
2-
+ 14H
+
+ 6e 2Cr
3+
+ 7H
2
O

Observation: The orange colour of the solution turn green.

Note: Dichromate(VI) ion is orange in colour whereas chromium(III) ion is green in
colour
Step 3: Identifying the Anode and Cathode
Electrode P: Anode
Electrode Q: Cathode

Note: Oxidation occurs at anode whereas reduction occurs at cathode.

Step 4: Determine the positive and Negative Terminal

Positive Terminal: Electrode Q
Negative Terminal: Electrode P

Note: Anode is the negative terminal whereas cathode is the positive terminal.

Step 5: Determine the Direction of Flow of Electrons.

From electrode P to electrode Q.

Note: Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal through
the wire.
Step 1: Identifying the Oxidising Agent and Reducing
Agent
Oxidising Agent: Bromine water
Reducing Agent: Iron(II) sulphate

Reaction Between Iron(II) Sulphate and Bromine Water
Step 2: Determining the Oxidation and Reduction Process
and Predicting the Observation

Oxidation
The reducing agent undergoes oxidation
Fe
2+
+ 2e --> Fe
3+


Observation: The green colour of iron(II) sulphate solution
turn brown.
Note: Iron(II) ion is green in colour whereas iron(III) ion is brown in colour.

Reduction
The oxidising agent undergoes reduction
Br
2
+ 2e --> 2Br
-


Observation: The yellow/orange colour of bromine water
become colourless.

Note: Bromine is yellow/orange in water whereas bromide is colourless.

Step 3: Identifying the Anode and Cathode
Electrode P: Anode
Electrode Q: Cathode

Note: Oxidation occurs at anode whereas reduction occurs at cathode.

Step 4: Determine the positive and Negative Terminal

Positive Terminal: Electrode Q
Negative Terminal: Electrode P

Note: Anode is the negative terminal whereas cathode is the positive terminal.

Step 5: Determine the Direction of Flow of Electrons.

From electrode P to electrode Q.

Note: Electrons flow from the negative terminal to the positive terminal through
the wire.
Corrosion as a Redox Reaction
1. Corrosion of metal = metal loses its electrons to form
positive ions.
Example
Corrosion of iron
Fe Fe
2+
+ 2e
Corrosion of Magnesium
Mg Mg
2+
+ 2e


2. The higher the position of a metal in the electrochemical
series, the more electropositive (reactive) the metal is.
The metal has a greater tendency to give away electrons to
form the metal ion, that is the metal is more easily
corroded.
3. For instance, the metal magnesium corrodes more easily
than copper because magnesium is more electropositive
than copper.


4. Corrosion of metal is a redox reaction as the metal
loses electrons to oxygen and water, which act as the
oxidising agents to receive the electrons.
5. Corrosion of iron is also called rusting.
Fe (s) Fe
2+
(aq) + 2e
6. Rusting of iron can only occur if both oxygen and water
are present.
Rusting of Iron
1. In the rusting of iron, iron acts as the reducing agent and
oxygen gas as the oxidising agent.
2. The process or rusting of iron can be explained by using
figure below.
3. When the surface of the iron is exposed to water droplets,
the center of the water droplets undergoes the process of
oxidation and is known as the anode.
4. The edge of the water droplets undergoes a process of
reduction and is known as the cathode. (The edge of the
water droplets acts as the cathode because of the
concentration of soluble oxygen is higher on the edge of
the water droplets than in the center.)
5. At the anode, the metal iron undergoes oxidation to form
the iron(II) ion with the loss of electrons.
Fe Fe
2+
+ 2e
6. Electrons that are free at the anode flow through the
metal iron to the cathode area where soluble oxygen in the
water accepts electrons to form hydroxide ions.
O
2
+ 2H
2
O + 4e 4OH
-

7. The iron(II) ions are then combines with the hydroxide ion
to form iron(II) hydroxide.
Fe
2+
+ OH- Fe(OH)
2

8. Iron(II) hydroxide is then oxidised by oxygen to form
iron(III) hydroxide.

4Fe(OH)
2
+ 2H
2
O + O
2
4Fe(OH)
3

9. The iron(III) hydroxide is then decomposed to form
hydrated iron(III) oxide, Fe
2
O
3
xH
2
O by oxygen in the
air.

4Fe(OH)
3
Fe
2
O
3
xH
2
O

10. The hydrated iron(III) oxide is brown in color and is
known as rust.

11. The overall equation for the rusting of iron is

4Fe + 3O
2
+2xH
2
O 2Fe
2
O
3
xH
2
O
Electrochemical Corrosion
1. The rusting of iron can be made faster if the iron is in contact
with a metal that is less electropositive than it. Corrosion of
metals such as this is known as electrochemical corrosion.
2. Electrochemical corrosion is a process where a metal corrodes
through losing of electrons (oxidation) to form cations in the
presence of an electrolyte when the metal is in contact with
another metal that is less electropositive than it.
3. The rusting of iron is made slower if the iron is in contact with
a metal that is more electropositive than it.
4. The higher the difference of the electropositivity between the
two metals, the faster the corrosion of the metals that occurs
on the metal which is more electropositive.
5. For example, iron rusts more easily when it pairs with copper
metal than when it pairs with tin. On the other hand, iron is less
likely to rust when it pairs with magnesium than when it pairs
with zinc.
Controlling Rusting
Steps to Control Rusting
The use of a metal which is less electropositive
1. The plating of iron with a thin layer of a metal which is less
electropositive such as tin, silver or copper will prevent the iron
underneath it to react with water and air, and so prevents the iron
from rusting.
2. However, the rusting of iron will occur faster if the protective
layer is scratched. This is because iron is more electropositive
than tin, silver or copper. The plating of iron by tin is used a lot in
the making of tinned food.
The use of a metal which is more electropositive
1. Metals which are more electropositive are used as a
sacrificial metal to prevent corrosion on metals which
are less electropositive. The metal which is more
electropositive corrodes and acts as the anode.
2. The less electropositive acts as the cathode and is
protected from corroding. This method is known as the
cathode protection or electrochemical protection.


Cover by paint, oil and grease

A layer of paint, oil/grease, or plastic that is used to cover
the surface of iron from contact with air and water in the
atmosphere. So, rusting can be avoided. For example,
1. Protection by a layer of paint usually is used for iron
and steel objects like cars, ships, bridges and other
things which do not undergo friction during use.
2. Protection by a layer of oil/grease is used for part of
machinery that move.
3. Protection by plastic is used for daily items at home
like clothes hangers and fencing.
4. Alloying of iron can prevent rusting. For example, when
iron is alloyed with chromium and nickel to form
stainless steel, the layer of chromium oxide that is
hard, strong and difficult to crack on the surface of
the iron alloy prevents the iron from rusting.
Series of Reactivity of Metals
1. When a metal reacts with oxygen to form a metal
oxide, a redox reaction occurs.
Metal + Oxygen Metal oxide
2. In this reaction,
Metal is oxidised to metal ions. The oxidation
number of the metal increases.
Oxygen is reduced to the oxide ion. The oxidation
number of oxygen decreases from 0 to -2.
Metal acts as a reducing agent while oxygen acts
as an oxidising agent.
3. Different metals burn in oxygen with different rate
depending on their differing activeness.
4. The more reactive metal towards oxygen, the
brighter and faster the combustion of the metal.
5. The arrangement of the metal according to the
tendency of reaction with oxygen to form the metal
oxide is known as the reactivity series of metals.
6. Figure above shows the experiment is conduct to
build the reactivity series of metal. Table below
shows the result of the experiment.
Metal Observation
Magnesium Combust quickly with a bright white shiny flame. A
white powder is formed.
Zinc A bright flame spread slowly. The powder produced is
yellow when hot, and white when it is cold.
Iron Embers spread slowly. A reddish brown powder is
formed.
Lead Red hot embers slowly. The powder produced is brown
when hot, and yellow when it is cold.
Copper Embers burn at a very slow rate. A black powder is
formed.


7. Oxygen that is used in combustion of other metals is
provides by heating solid potassium manganate(VII),
also can be obtained from

a) heating the mixture potassium chlorate (V) and
manganese (IV) oxide (catalyst)

2KClO
3
(s) 2KCl (s) + 3O
2
(g)

b) heating potassium nitrate

2KNO
3
(s) 2KNO
2
(s) + O
2
(g)
Position of Carbon in The Series of Reactivity of Metals
1. The position of carbon in the series of reactivity of
metals can be determined based on:
the ability of metals to take away oxygen from
carbon oxide, that is carbon dioxide.
the ability of carbon to take away oxygen from
metal oxides
Experiment 1
1. If the metal can take away oxygen
from carbon dioxide, then the metal
is more reactive than carbon.
Metal + carbon dioxide metal oxide
+ carbon
2. On the other hand, if the metal
cannot take away oxygen from carbon
dioxide, then the metal is less
reactive than carbon.

Example

2Mg (s) + CO
2
(g) 2MgO (s) + C (s)

Conclusion: Magnesium is more
reactive than carbon.
Experiment 2
1. If carbon can take away oxygen from
metal oxide, then the carbon is more
reactive than the metal.
Carbon + metal oxide metal +
carbon dioxide
2. On the other hand, if carbon cannot
take away oxygen from metal oxide,
then the carbon is less reactive than
the metal.

Example

C + 2CuO 2Cu + CO
2


Conclusion: Copper is less reactive
than carbon.


The chart below show the position of carbon in a reactivity
series.
Position of Hydrogen in The Reactivity Series of Metals
1. The position of hydrogen in the reactivity series of
metal can also be determined based on its ability to
displace oxygen from metal oxides.
2. If hydrogen is more reactive than a metal, it can
displace oxygen from metal oxide, and reduces the
metal oxide to its metal.
3. Hydrogen + metal oxide metal + water
4. Conversely, if hydrogen cannot remove oxygen from
metal oxide, hydrogen is less reactive than the metal in
the reactivity series of metal.
5. Hydrogen can reduce iron (II) oxide, Fe
2
O
3
to form
iron, Fe and water.
Fe
2
O
3
+ 3H
2
2Fe + 3H
2
O
6. However, hydrogen cannot reduce zinc oxide, ZnO.
7. Therefore hydrogen is below zinc but above iron in
the reactivity series of metals.
8. The diagram below shows the set-up of apparatus
used to determine the position of hydrogen in the
reactivity series of metal.
9. The chart below shows the position of carbon and
hydrogen in the reactivity series of metal base on their
ability to attract oxygen to form oxide.
Application of The Reactivity Series of Metals in The
Extraction of Metals
1. The method that is used in the extraction of metal
from its ore depends on the position of the metal in the
reactivity series of metals.
metals that are located lower than carbon in the
reactivity series of metals can be extracted using
the reduction of metal oxide by carbon in a blast
furnace.
metals that are located higher than carbon in the
reactivity series of metals are extracted by using
electrolytic melting of metal compounds.
2. The chart below give the method of extraction of
certain metals by referring to the reactivity series.
Extraction of Iron
1. Iron is extracted from its ore, that is hematite (Fe
2
O
3
)
and magnetite (Fe
3
O
4
) through reduction by carbon in
the form of carbon in a blast furnace.

2. The mixture of iron ore, carbon, and limestone is entered
into a blast furnace through the top of the furnace.

3. Hot air is then put in through the lower part of the
furnace

4. Limestone (calcium carbonate) is disintegrated by hot air
into calcium oxide and carbon dioxide gas.
CaCO
3
(s) CaO (s) + CO
2
(g)

5. Carbon also burns in hot air to produce carbon dioxide gas
C (s) + O
2
(g) CO
2
(g)
6. Carbon dioxide that is produced reacts with excess
carbon to produce carbon monoxide gas which is a type
of reducing agent.
CO
2
+ C 2CO
7. Carbon and carbon monoxide then reduces the iron ore to
melted iron which flows to the lower part of the furnace.
2Fe
2
O
3
(s) + 3C(s) 4Fe(s) + 3CO
2
(g)
Fe
2
O
3
(s) + 3CO(g) 2Fe(s) + 3CO
2
(g)
Fe
3
O
4
(s) + C(s) 3Fe(s) + 2CO
2
(g)
Fe
3
O
4
(s) + 4CO(g) 3Fe(s) + 4CO
2
(g)

8. In the blast furnace, calcium oxide that is produced from
the disintegration of calcium carbonate, reacts with
foreign matter such as sand (silicon dioxide) in the iron ore
to form slag.
CaO (s) + SiO
2
(s) CaSiO
3
(s) (slag)
9. The melted dross flows down to the bottom part of the
furnace and floats on the layer of melted iron.
10. The melted iron and dross then are taken out from the
furnace separately.
11. The melted iron is cooled in a mould to form cast iron,
while the dross is used to make the foundation for
roads and houses.
Extraction of Tin
1. Tin exists as stanum(IV) oxide, SnO
2
in the mineral
casiterite, that is tin. Tin contains a lot of foreign
matter such as sand, soil, sulphur, carbon and oil.
2. Firstly the tin ore is made concentrated by the
method of floatation. In this process, the ore is
crushed and shaken in oily water. The foreign matter
such as sand and soil drown while the tin ore sticks to
the oil and floats on the surface of the water.
3. The tin ore is then collected and roasted to take
away foreign matter such as carbon, sulphur and oil.
4. Lastly, the tin ore is mixed with carbon in the form of
charcoal and is heated in a blast furnace at a high
temperature.

5. Stanum(IV) oxide in the ore is reduced to tin by the
reducing agent carbon and carbon monoxide.
SnO
2
(s) + 2C(s) Sn (s) + 2CO (g)
SnO
2
(s) + C(s) Sn (s) + CO
2
(g)
SnO
2
(s) + 2CO(s) Sn (s) + 2CO
2
(g)

6. The melted tin that is formed collects at the base of
the furnace and then is channeled out into a mould to
form tin ingot.

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