Language and Language-based Codes A Seminar in Semiotics 2013 Submitted by

Safwan A. Aziz Course Instructor Prof. Dr. Anis B. Naoum

Verbal Communication

Language in a semiotic frame: The aim is to investigate language in relation to semiotics. This in turn, leads to the question of the scope of linguistics. Explicitly semiotic approaches to language aim at extending the scope of linguistics in order to account for the relation between language and other sign systems. The relation between linguistics and semiotics is mutually exclusive, one part-whole relationship, one of interpretation, and one of heuristic (investigative) relevance. The former relation, (mutually exclusive is the least beneficial. Semiotics as a Part of Linguistics: Barthes and also Hjelmslev both provocatively proposed a theory of semiotics as a branch of linguistics .In this view; linguistics is extended to include the level of the text i.e. semiotics is reduced to the study of textual structures only. Hjelmslev argues that language is a semiotic into which all other semiotics may be translated". However, it should be mentioned here that Hjelmslev in this context, he referred to semiotic systems in general rather than natural languages, but this view has been rejected from the point of view of general semiotics.

Perspective Interpretation: If semiotics is accepted as the general theory of signs, such theoretical perspective can be applied to every field of language. However, core fields of linguistics such as morphology, lexicology and syntax have a tradition which is largely independent of general semiotics. But there are fields which are naturally dependent on semiotics and require semiotic extension; these fields are semantics and pragmatics. Linguistics as the Pilot Science of Semiotics It has been argued that Linguistics as a discipline has a higher degree of development than semiotics and therefore need to be used as a guideline in the more recent field of semiotics. Those who follow this perspective are: Saussure, deems language as the patron general for the study of other sign systems. Bloomfield represents the view that linguistics is the chief contributor to semiotic Weinreich refers to natural language as the semiotic phenomenon par excellence. Structurally, Benveniste states three aspects in which language contributes to semiotic: Generative relationship, i.e. language generates other semiotic sign systems. Homology (isomorphism) Interpretance (i.e. language is the interpreting system of all other semiotic systems).

Semiotic Extensions of Linguistics This topic includes foundations for the extension of traditional linguistics as a semiotic approach to language, it includes seven categories: Semiotics as the theory of language (In traditional logic semiotic is a philosophical theory of language). Sign theoretical foundations of language (semiotic linguistics is concerned with the structure of the language sign). The pragmatic framework of linguistics (i.e. relating signs to their interpreters). The text semiotic extensions of Linguistics (the semiotic approach to language begins with text semiotics). The cultural framework of language (extending the study to include the cultural framework). The study of Non-vocal languages (extension from vocal to Nonvocal languages as a major concern in semiotic linguistics). Semio-genesis and Language (study of the evolutionary roots of language).

Semioticians in Linguistics and Linguists in Semiotics: Pierce is considered as the major figure in semiotics whose work is influential in linguistics. Saussure, on the other hand, along with Hjelmslev, Jakobson and Karl Buhler, their works are considered semiotic. Halliday and Shaumyan have proposed a semiotic approach to language. For Halliday, his studies are sociosemiotici.e. language is a product of a social process .Shaumyan proposes A Semiotic Theory of Language using Universal Grammar. Design Features (DF) of Language: Semiotics draws the attention of linguists to the new frontier of a theory "capable of explaining the characteristics of human language". Several attempts have been made to achieve this goal by contrasting human language with nonlinguistic semiotic systems. The most influential proposal in this context is Hockett's list of design features. Hockett developed a list of 16 design features of language, by comparing languages with communicative systems of various animal species; He divided these features according to their semiotic features: DFs Relating to the Channel DF 1: Vocal/Auditory Channel: Language is produced by means of the vocal tract. The signals are received through the ears. DF 2: Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception: Sound moves in all directions from its source and can pass around obstacles. The receiver is able to locate the direction of the source of speech.

DF 3: Rapid Fading: Spoken signals vanish quickly, leaving the channel free for further messages. DFs of the Pragmatic Dimension DF 4: Interchangeability. Adult members of a speech community can be both senders and receivers of messages. DF 5: Complete Feedback. The speaker can hear immediately, and thus monitor by feedback, his or her own message. Together with DF 4, total feedback has also a social dimension. DF 6: Specialization. The act of speaking is specialized to the communicative functions of language. Speaking does not serve any additional physiological functions. It requires little physical effort, and its energetic consequences are biologically irrelevant. The speaker is free to perform other activities while speaking. DFs of the Semantic Dimension DF 7: Semanticity. In his view, human language is a semantic system of communication because its elements have "associative ties with things and situations, or types of things and situations, in the environment of its users." DF 8: Arbitrariness. The signal - object relationship is arbitrary and not iconic. DF 9: Displacement. The language sign can refer to objects remote in time and space.

DF 10: Prevarication. We can say things that are false or meaningless. Eco considers this feature to be characteristic of semiosis in general. DF 11: Reflexiveness. Language can be used to communicate about language. This is Jakobson's metalinguistic function. Semio-genetic Features DF 12: Tradition. The conventions of language are passed down by teaching and learning, not through the germ plasm. Language is thus acquired by culture, not by nature. DF 13: Learnability. The speaker of one language can learn another language. Characteristics of the Code DF 14: Discreteness. The sign repertoire consists of discrete and recurrent units. There is no gradation of linguistic elements in terms of more or less. The units of language are not continuous. DF 15: Productivity or Openness: "New linguistic messages are coined freely and easily, and, in context, are usually understood." Productivity is primarily due to the syntax of language. New messages are generated by the creative combination of linguistic signs. DF 16: Duality of Patterning. This is the feature which semioticians, following Martinet (1949), also refer to by the term double articulation. The discussion of this key concept of linguistics and the semiotic theory of codes requires a separate paragraph.

Design features of language (Hockett1960)

According to Channel

According to Pragmatic Dimension

According to Semantic Dimension

According to Semiogenetic features

Characteristics of the code

Vocal -auditory

Interchangeability

Semanticity

Tradition

Discreteness

Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception

Complete Feedback

Arbitrariness

Learnability

Productivity (Openness) Duality of Patterning

Specialization

Prevarication

Rapid Fading

Displacement

Reflexiveness

Of the previous 16 DFs, Hockett regards only four can be considered central and to some extent unique of human languages, these are: openness, displacement, duality, and traditional transmission. In an anthropo-semiotic framework, Mounin speaks of six features of human language: Function of Communication. Arbitrariness. Being a system. Linearity.(unlike visual communication) Discreteness. Double articulation. Osgood (1980) proposes as system of defining characteristics of languages relying on theoretical, behavioristic and comparative linguistic considerations. Language as a Code Two important directions of influence between semiotics of language and the theory of codes are discussed. The first is that double articulation has become essential for the study of other semiotic systems; the other is that "language as a code", has led to the belief that language is derived from more general theories of codes and information, since code is synonymous to system.

Double Articulation: This principle has often been considered as the single distinguishing feature of human language. Martinet's theory states that articulation means structuring which involves two levels: 1st articulation, a message is structured into meaningful units consisting of the signifier and the signified (monemes), 2nd articulation, structuring the phonetic signifiers of the monemes into non-signifying but distinctive phonemes. Some other scholars proposed rather different approach which can be illustrated as follows: Duality of patterning 1st Articulation 2nd Articulation Martinets Monemes Phonemes Hocketts Morphemes Phonemes Hjelmslevs Plereme Ceneme The language Code: Code and system are used interchangeably in linguistics; Saussure once spoke of language as a code in his dichotomy of langue/parole. Jakobson proposed to restate these concepts in terms of message /code. Several scholars rejected the term language Code emphasizing the difference between natural languages and artificial codes. Code implies psycholinguistic processes of encoding, storage, and decoding of language.

The Language Code as Sign Repertoire As sign repertoires, codes consist of a homogenous and closed set of unambiguous symbols. Language however, is an open system of semantically flexible signs. To overcome these implications, Jacobson have introduced two modifications of the concept of code in linguistics. He proposed the Dynamic view of language, as a diversified code, its overall code includes a set of sub- codes. The subcodes of languages are its functional varieties (dialects, idiolects, styles, etc.). Bernstein's sociolinguistic "code theory" of the 1960s distinguishes between the "general code" and the "speech codes" of individuals of social groups. Codes as Rules of Semiotic Transformation: Jacobson described encoding as a transformation of meanings (signata) into sounds (signantia). It is a true principle that, in semiotics, expression/content, signifier/signified are inseparable. One can neither divide sound from thought nor thought from sound.

Arbitrariness and Motivation : In Saussures words, the linguistic sign is arbitrary, Hockett considers arbitrariness as the defining feature of language. The thesis of conventionality of words is precursor to Saussurean dogma. Socrates admitted that words cannot be completely arbitrary, since, in naming, we cannot follow our own will. Such conventionality is discussed as a pragmatic dimension regarding its role in social semiotic behavior. Wittingstein argues that if language is to be a means of communication, there must be agreement, language is founded on convention. And grammatical rules are based on grammatical conventions. Social agreement is not agreement in opinions but in form of life. Austin distinguishes only illocutionary acts (promising, commanding and baptizing) as conventional. Searle, on the other hand, distinguishes between conventions and rules, while he further divides rules into Regulative (etiquette or clothing) and Constitutive (like the rules of chess or football).

Foundations of Arbitrariness: Precursors: Locke already used this term words signify by a perfect arbitrary imposition". Saussure took this thesis from Whitney who states an internal and necessary tie between the word and idea is absolutely nonexistent for the learner. However, Saussure warned that the choice of the signifier is not left entirely to the speaker. Arbitrariness is not freedom of choice, but it means the unmotivated nature of the sign. In the Saussurean concept, arbitrariness indicates also the conventionality of the language system (the community is essential in the existence and acceptance of signs). Against this principle, Benveniste postulates the principle of necessity of the linguistic sign; it depends on the psychological association between the two sides of the linguistic sign.

Arbitrariness: Relation of Sense or Reference? In Saussurean principle, arbitrariness is a matter of sense only, i.e. the relationship between the signifier and the signified. Arbitrariness in the Triadic Model of the sign is necessarily referential. if the signifier is arbitrary with respect to the referent and if the signified is necessarily linked to the signifier , the signified must also be considered arbitrary. Absolute vs. Relative Arbitrariness: In Saussure terms, words such as ten, sheep, or apple exhibit absolute arbitrariness, while compound words such as fifteen, shepherd, or apple tree are examples of relative arbitrariness. Besides, all rules of grammar restrict arbitrariness and introduce motivation into the system of language.

Paralanguage: As a branch of nonverbal communication, it is the study of vocal signals beyond the verbal message in the narrower sense. In the broadest sense, it comprises seven areas, the broadest of which are (1non-human and human vocalizations, and 2-non-vocal as well as vocal features of human communication).However, paralanguage in the narrower sense will be adopted here, i.e.(human vocalizations only). Although dedicated to non-verbal communication, yet, Paralanguage is not concerned with gestures for examples because gestures convey messages independent of language. Paralanguage is communication that occurs with verbal messages. Paralinguistic messages are suprasegmental and thus not inherent in the words. From a linguistic point of view, the borderline between linguistics and Para-linguistics is expressed as follows:

Paralinguistics

Prosody

Linguistics

Historically, and from a purely semiotic point of view, paralanguage was one of the steps in the extension of structural linguistics toward a semiotic theory of human communication. Rauch locates paralinguistics between linguistics and semiotics, since it is concerned with indexical signs.

Linguistics

Paralanguistics

Semiotics

Writing Writing has been neglected in language studies, except for its historical dimension. Within a semiotic framework, writing has further dimensions of interest to philosophy, cultural anthropology, and mass media. As an evolutionary process, there are two basic options for the development of writing systems these can be best exemplified as follows:

In Hjelmslevs terminology, the semantic unit is Pleremic writing while the phonetic unit is Cenemic one.

Defining Features of Spoken and Written Language

Spoken Uses vocal-auditory channel

Written Uses visual channel ( fails in the dark)

Broadcast transmission
Less specialized in the treatment of content.

Directional reception
Highly specialized, requires higher energetic effort, more freedom in editing and revising. Permanent recording and information storage.

Rapid fading

Writing and Speech: Autonomy vs. Heteronomy: The question of whether the grapheme is a sign or not depends heavily on the autonomy or heteronomy of writing. Therefore, for those who follow the autonomous view, written segments the size of a word or morpheme are signs of writing. While a heteronomous view considers the single letter as having the status of a sign which refers to a phoneme. The primacy of writing over spoken mode has been dealt with in terms of Phonocentrism or Grapho-centrism.

Universal language (ULs): To overcome the shortcomings of linguistic features of arbitrariness and tradition, hundreds of Universal Languages have been proposed or developed during the history of semiotics. The roots of semiotic dimensions for ULs are simplified below:

Typology of ULs (Priori and Posteriori) Priori UL: Using artificial elements and structures invented independently for any existing natural language. Posteriori UL: Composed of elements from one or several historical languages with the goal of creating a simpler, more regular and easier to learn language. Media proposed for ULs projects are speech; alphabetic writing and numbers are the major, other means are also suggested like music and pictographs. Sign Language Sign languages (SLs) in the narrower sense are semiotic systems of gestural communication with the communicative potential of a spoken language. Such gestural languages have been developed in contexts where speech is not available (as in SL of the deaf), or where speech is forbidden (as in monastic SLs), or as a universal language for people of different native languages. In the very broad sense, SL is used as a synonym of semiotic systems in general. SLs differ from spoken languages in that they are visu-centric and lacking the ability to discuss in-depth abstract themes, while, spoken language is phono-centric, creative and expressive of abstract themes.

Language Substitutes Language substitutes are secondary codes whose signs are molded on the form of primary linguistic code. Language substitutes include speech surrogates such as drum and whistle languages, as derivatives of speech. Such surrogates are utilized in contexts delimited by geographical distribution and communicative function. Alphabetic Codes Examples of Alphabetic Codes:

Morse code. Braille code. The binary code of the alphabet.

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