Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
PRESENTED BY: GS34363 NG CHIEW FEN GS37456 NURULADILAH BT MOHAMED GS37264 NUR NADIAH FATIHAH BT JOHARI
There are many variables involved in the process Cannot be programmed into a set of quick do-it-yourself
Learner Characteristics Who are the learners? Ethnic, linguistic and religious heritage, native language, level of education and socioeconomic characteristics, life experiences, intellectual capacity, abilities, strength and weaknesses. Linguistic factors Understand the system and functioning of the second language and the differences between first language and second language. Learning Processes Optimal inter-relationship of cognitive, affective and physical domains for successful language learning. Age and Acquisition Does the age of learning make a difference? How do the cognitive and emotional developmental changes of childhood and young adulthood affect language acquisition?
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Instructional Variables Do all people learn a language equally successfully in natural environments? What are the effects of varying methodological approaches, textbooks, materials, teacher styles and institutional factors in instructed SLA. Is there an optimal length of time required for successful mastery?
Context Is the language being acquired as a second language? (only in a technical sense) Or as a foreign language context in which it is heard and spoken in an artificial environment? (i.e. Modern language class in an American university) How do sociopolitical conditions or language policy of a country affect a learner? How do intercultural contrasts and similarities affect the learning process? Purpose Why are learners trying to acquire the second language?
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Answers to the questions raised are always framed in a context that can vary from one learner to another, from one moment to another. Roger Browns remark (Pg. 4) refers to a complex mental phenomenon as something intelligent and slippery.
The quest of SLA is : Eclectic : No single theory/hypothesis with a magic formula for all learners in all contexts. Cautious : To be critical in considering the merit of various models , theories and research findings
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1.4 LANGUAGE
1. What is LANGUAGE?
Merriem-Websters definition : the system of words or signs that people use to express thoughts and feelings to each other. OR any one of the systems of human language that are used and understood by a particular group of people Pinkers definition (The Language Instinct, 1994, p.18) : Language us a complex, specialized skill, which develops in the child spontaneously, without conscious effort or formal instruction, is deployed without awareness of its underlying logic, is qualitatively the same in every individual, and is distinct from a more general ability to process information or behave intelligently.
2. Composite Definition :
No. 1. Composite Definition Language is systematic Possible Areas of Linguistic Research Explicit and formal accounts of system of language on several possible levels (e.g : phonological, syntactic, lexical and semantic analysis) The symbolic nature of language; the relationship between language and reality; the philosophy of language; the history of language
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Phonetics; phonology; writing systems; the role of gesture, distance, eye contact, and other paralinguistic features of language
Semantics; language and cognition; psycholinguistics Communication systems; speakerhearer interaction; sentence processing
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The symbols have conventionalized meanings to which they refer Language is used for communication
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2. Composite Definition :
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Possible Areas of Linguistic Research Dialectology; sociolinguistics; language and culture; pragmatics; bilingualism and second language acquisition
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Human language and non-human communication; neurolinguistics; innate factors; genetic transmission; nature vs nurture
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Learning is acquisition or getting. Learning is retention of information or skill. Retention implies storage systems, memory, cognitive organization. Learning involves active, conscious focus on and acting upon events outside or inside the organism. Learning is relatively permanent but subject to forgetting. Learning involves some form of practice, perhaps reinforced practice. Learning is a change in behavior.
Behaviorism
Main Figures
Ivan Pavlov
Conditioning & Reinforcement Burrhus Frederic Skinner
Classical conditioning
Operant conditioning
Behaviorism
Basic concepts
Early 1900s, 1940s and 1950s.
Learning is behavioral change.
Behavior is the best or most convenient way of investigating psychological and mental processes.
interested in how our behavior results from the stimuli both in the environment and within ourselves
Publicly observable performance and responses. The scientific method / Empirical Approach (Empricism).
Behaviorism
Learning and Teaching in General
Students remember and respond: Stimulus-Response (S-R) Change in overt behavior due to conditioning. Teachers present and provide for practice and feedback. Behavior is repeated until it becomes automatic. (imitate & practice = language development) The behavior of the learner signifies that learning has occurred (publicly observable response).
Behaviorism
Linguistic Reflections = Structuralism
Structural or descriptive school of thought Leonard Bloomfeld, Edward Sapir, Charles Hockett
Observation to descibe human languages and to identify the structural characteristics of those languages. Language is a set of habits.
Language can be broken up into small pieces - can be described scientifically, contrasted and added up again to form the whole.
Cognitivism
Main Figures
David Ausubel
Reasoning & Mental processes
Jerome Bruner
Cognitivism
Basic concepts
1960s and 1970s.
Cognitivism
Learning and Teaching in General
Information transmission and processing: Memorizing and application of rules. Learners remember strategies, rules and patterns. Learning is influenced by existing knowledge. Learning is based on the thought process behind the behavior.
Cognitivism
Linguistic Reflections = Generative-transformational
Generative-transformational school of thought Noam Chomsky An opposition to structural definition of language. Language cannot be simplified to observable stimuli and responses. Performance and Competence (underlying and unobservable language ability) Deep structure of human behavior (freed by empirical study) Acquisiton and innateness
Constructivism
Main Figures
Jean Piaget
Primacy of each individuals construction of reality.
Lev Vygotsky
Constructivism
Basic concepts
1980s, 1990s and early 2000s. Integration of linguistics, psychological, and sociological paradigms Focuses on individuals engaged in social practices, on a collabrative group, or a global community.
Constructivism
Learning and Teaching in General
Problem solving in realistic and investigative situations. Personal discovery of knowledge. Teachers provide instructional context for active and self-regulated learners. The learner constructs knowledge by applying knowledge to solving problems. Learning occurs through interaction with others.
Constructivism
Linguistic Reflections = Constructivism
Integration of linguistic, psychological, and sociological paradigms. The active role of the learner is emphasized. Interacive discourse. Cooperative group learning Communicative basis Interlanguage variability
Cognitive Constructivism
It emphasizes the learners to play an active role for
their learning.
Piaget emphasized the role of an inbuilt (biological)
teacher intervention
Social Constructivism
It emphasizes the importance of social interaction and
cooperative learning
Vygotsky emphasized the role of culture and experience a
A Quick Review
Linguistics Theory
Structural Generative Constructivism
Psychology Theory
Behavioral
Cognitive
Constructivism
1.Nineteen Centuries
2.Twentieth Century
Classical Method
Direct Method
Series Method
Classical Method
Adopted as chief means for teaching foreign
language Languages were taught to learn for the sake of being scholarly Focus on i. grammatical rules ii. memorization of vocabulary/various of declensions and conjugations III. translations of texts and written exercise
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ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii.
Classes taught in the mother tongue, little use of the L2 Much vocabulary taught in the form of lists of isolated words Elaborate explanations of intricacies of grammar Reading of difficult classical texts begun early Texts treated as exercises in grammatical analysis Occasional drills and exercises in translating sentences from L1 to L2 Little or no attention to pronunciation
Series Method
A
method that taught learners directly (without translation) and conceptually (without grammatical rules and explanations) a series of connected sentences that are easy to percieve.
Emphasized presenting each item in context and using gestures to supplement verbal meaning Taught learners directly a series of connected sentences. Example; o I walk toward the door. I draw near to the door. I draw nearer to the door. I get to the door. I stop the door.
new material is presented in dialogue form ii. there is dependence on mimicry,memorization, of set of phrases and overlearning iii. there is little or no grammatical explanation iv. vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context v. there is much use of tapes, language labs and visual aids vi. Very little use of mother tongue by teachers is permitted
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Direct Method
The principles of the Direct Method
Classroom instruction was conducted in the target
language There was an inductive approach to grammar Only everyday vocabulary was taught Concrete vocabulary was taught through pictures and objects Abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas
communicate Authentic and meaningful communication should be the goal of classroom activities Fluency is an important dimension of communication Communication involves the integration of different langauge skills Learning is a process of creative construction and involves trial and error
REFERENCES
Bell, D. M. (2007). Do teachers think that methods are
dead?. ELT journal, 61(2), 135-143. Brown, H. D (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching (5th ed.). White Plains, NY:Pearson Education. Lightbown, P. M., Spada, N. (2008). How languages are learned (3rd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Winke, P. M. (2007). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 29(01), 143-144.
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