Section 1: Geography and Indian Life Part 1

India is a subcontinent that is sometimes

called South Asia. Subcontinent = a large landmass that is part of a continent but is considered a separate region. India used to be a separate landmass, but it collided with Asia, forming mountains. The subcontinent includes present-day Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and most of Pakistan.

 Northern India is separated from China and

Asia by the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas mountain ranges. The Himalayas are the highest mountains in the world. Important rivers are the Ganges and Indus, which provide water for irrigation and silt for farming. In ancient times, the Saraswati river area was home to great cities, but the river dried up.

 India is surrounded by the Arabian Sea,

Indian Ocean, and Bay of Bengal. Ancient Indians sailed these waters to trade with other lands.

 The tall m0untains in Northern India block

cold winds, so temperatures are generally warm. Seasonal wind systems called monsoons produce a wet or dry season in a region. The summer monsoon provides rain for Indias crops, but these rains can also cause severe flooding.

 Huge earth mounds dot the Indus River

Valley.
Archaeologists have explored these mounds

and uncovered the ruins of ancient civilizations.

 History in the Indus River Valley followed the

same pattern as in Sumer and Egypt. Civilizations began with agriculture, and the earliest farmers raised wheat and barley. By 3000 B.C., they were growing cotton, domesticating cattle, sheep, goats, chickens, and making tools from copper and bronze. Over time, trade was built up and culture became more complex.

 By 2500 B.C., the Indus and Saraswati

valleys contained hundreds of cities. At least 35,000 people may have lived in the largest and best-known cities of MohenjoDaro and Harappa. Today, the ancient culture that developed along the Indus River is called the Harappan civilization.

 The Harappan civilization featured planned cities,

which are built according to a specific design. Surrounded with heavy brick protective walls. City streets crossed over each other in a neat grid with square corners. Along the streets were homes, shops, and factories. Cities had large public buildings for religious and government functions.

 People in large cities always have to deal

with the problem of removing human waste. In most ancient cities, people dumped waste into open drainage ditches or carted it out of town. Whats the problem?

 In contrast to other ancient cities, Harappan

cities were very advanced in waste removal. Almost every house contained a bathroom and a toilet. Underground sewers carried away the waste. No other civilization achieved this level of convenience until the late 1800s (4000 years later!).

Section 1: Geography and Indian Life Part 2

 One kind of artifact found in the ruined

cities of the Harappan civilization were stone seals. On the seals were pictures and a mysterious form of writing. No one has yet figured out how to read the writing of the Harappan civilization. Until they do, the only way we can learn about the civilization is by studying artifacts.

 Archaeologists have found evidence of religion

in the Harappan civilization. Mohenjo-Daro had a huge public bath that may have been used for religious rituals. Figures of animals, such as bulls, that Indians still regard as holy. Clay figurines that may be deities or simply dolls. Many figurines that have been found show links to modern Indian culture.

 Harappan cities spread across an area that

was about 500,000 square miles in size. That was twice as big as Texas is today! Even though they were so spread out, all Harappan cities shared a common design. That shared design showed how widely the culture had spread.

 Harappan people used standard weights and

measures. Across the region, they made similar bronze statues and clay toys. These artifacts show that the Harappans could afford more than just basic necessities.

 The Harappans gained their wealth from

agriculture and trade. One of the groups they traded with was the Mesopotamians. The Harappans traded timber, ivory, and beads. The Mesopotamians sold them silver, tin, and woolen cloth.

 Around 1700 B.C., the great cities of the Indus

Valley began to fall into decay. Historians didnt know why until the 1970s. Satellite images of the subcontinent showed evidence of ancient movements in the earths crust. This movement probably caused earthquakes and floods, and altered the course of the Indus River.

 Some cities along the Indus survived

this natural disaster, others were destroyed. Harappan agriculture would have been affected, causing food shortages. This also may have forced people to leave the cities, leading to the decline of the Harappan civilization.

 A nomadic people from north of the

Hindu Kush mountains swept into the Indus Valley around 1500 B.C. Indian civilization would begin to grow again under the influence of these nomads. We will discuss this more later!

Section 2: The Origins of Hinduism Part 1

 The Harappan civilization began to decline

around 17oo B.C., probably because of earthquakes and flooding. Around 1500 B.C., a nomadic people from north of the Hindu Kush mountains swept into the Indus River Valley. Indian civilization began to grow again under the influence of these nomads.

 The nomads who came to the Indus River

Valley were Indo-Europeans. Indo-Europeans are people who speak dialects of a language called Indo-European. Dialects = varieties of a language spoken in different regions or countries

 Scholars believe that the Indo-Europeans

may have originally come from Central Asia. Most of them were nomads who lived in family groups or clans, and herded cattle, sheep, and goats. They were also warriors who rode horsedriven chariots, and fought with long bows and arrows, and bronze axes.

 Around 2000 B.C., the Indo-Europeans left

Central Asia in a wave of migrations. Historians arent sure why they left, but different groups moved to different regions. The Hittites went to Southwest Asia, many other groups settled in parts of Europe. One group, the Aryans, migrated to the Indian subcontinent.

 Unlike the Harappans who lived in cities, the

Aryans lived in simple houses. They spoke an Indo-European language called Sanskrit. For years, historians thought the Aryans conquered the Harappans. Now historians believe the Harappan civilization had already declined before the Aryans got there.

 The Aryans entered India gradually.

They practiced a religion that appealed to the

people living in India at the time (Dravidians). As a result, Aryan religion and language spread. In return, the Dravidians taught the Aryans about city life. As a result of interactions between the Aryans and Dravidians, India developed a complex, blended culture.

 Aryan society was organized into classes:

Warriors
Priests Commoners

 As Indian society grew more complex, these

classes developed into what was later called the caste system. Caste = a social class that a person belongs to by birth These castes became associated with different jobs. The jobs fell into four categories

 Brahmans > priests, scholars, teachers Ksatriya > rulers, nobles, warriors

Vaisya > bankers, farmers, merchants

Sudra > artisans and laborers

 Centuries later, another group developed

that was considered below all other groups. This group was called the untouchables. They did the jobs no one else wanted to do:
Butchering Removing trash Disposing of dead bodies Cleaning sewers

 In modern times, the Untouchables are called

the Dalit, and in some Indian states they make up 20% of the population. Discrimination based on caste has been prohibited, and untouchability has been abolished, but prejudice against Dalits remains. This prejudice is often seen in rural areas in matters such as access to eating places, schools, temples and water sources.

Section 2: The Origins of Hinduism Part 2

 After the decline of the Harappan

civilization, an Indo-European group called the Aryans began to move into northwest India in 1500 B.C. Because of the influence of the Aryans language and religion, Indian culture became blended and complex. As society became more complex, the caste system developed.

 Brahmans > priests, scholars, teachers

Ksatriya > rulers, nobles, warriors

Vaisya > bankers, farmers, merchants Sudra > artisans and laborers

---------------------------------------------------- Untouchables

 The early religion of the Aryans is now called

Brahmanism. This name comes from the Aryan priests, who were called Brahmins. The Aryans were polytheistic. They worshiped many nature deities, and made sacrifices to those deities by offering animals to a sacred fire. Their most important gods were Shiva, Indra, Varuna, and Surya.

Shiva

Indra

Varuna

Surya

 Over time, Indians began to believe that all

deities were really the expression of one deity. Later, Indians wrote about their ancient history in works like the Mahabharata. One part of the Mahabharata is called the Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita is an important sacred text of Brahmanism and Hinduism.

 Hinduism is the modern name for the major

religion of India, which developed from Brahmanism. It is the third largest religion in the world today. Hindu belief varies widely. Some Hindus are monotheistic, some are polytheistic, and some are even atheistic!

 Most Hindus believe in many gods, but they

also recognize one supreme God or life force. Hindus consider the other deities to be parts of the one universal God. The three most important other deities are:
Brahma The Creator Vishnu The Protector Shiva The Destroyer

Brahma

Vishnu

Shiva

 Hindus believe in reincarnation, which means

that each person has many lives. According to a belief called karma, what a person does in each life determines what he or she will be in the next life. Reincarnation creates a repeating cycle of birth, life, death, and rebirth. The cycle ends when a person achieves a mystical union with God.

 Hindus believe they connect to God by

following their own path. This includes working at a job that is linked with their place in the caste system. Devout Hindus must faithfully carry out their assigned duties in life.

 Hindus use different spiritual practices to grow

closer to God. Two examples are meditation and yoga. Meditation is the practice of making the mind calm. Yoga is a complex practice that includes exercise, breathing techniques, and diet.

Section 3: Buddhism and Indias Golden Age Part 1

 Besides Hinduism, other religions had their

beginnings in India as well. One of these is the religion of Jainism, which teaches ahimsa (nonviolence). Jains practice ahimsa very strictly. They believe that every living thing has a soul and should not be hurt. Some Jains even wear masks to avoid breathing in insects!

 Buddhism, the fourth largest world religion,

also began in India. Buddhism is based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama. He was a prince who gave up his wealth and position to try and understand the meaning of life. He later became known as the Buddha, or enlightened one.

See explanation of symbols on page 129.

 Siddhartha was born a Hindu prince, and was

sheltered by his father. He did not see old age, illness, death, or poverty until he was 29. When he finally did see these things, they upset him greatly. He set out to search for peace in a world of suffering.

 Siddhartha starved himself (fasted) for six

years, but did not find the answers he sought. While meditating under a fig tree, Siddhartha gained insights into reality. He called these insights the Four Noble Truths.

 The Four Noble Truths

1.

Existence is suffering.

2. Suffering comes from wanting what you

dont have, or wanting life to be different. 3. People can stop suffering by not wanting. 4. People can stop wanting by following the Eightfold Path.

 Following the Eightfold Path could lead to

nirvana, the end of suffering. Reaching nirvana broke the cycle of reincarnation. After the Buddha died, his followers gathered his teachings (the dharma) to pass on to others.

 Around 550 B.C., the Aryan kingdom of

Magadha began to gain strength in northeast India. About 321 B.C., Chandragupta Maurya became king of Magadha and conquered much territory. His Maurya empire soon covered much of the India subcontinent.

 Chandragupta controlled his empire by using

spies and an army of soldiers to keep order. His army included 600,000 foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 elephants. Legend says that he became a nonviolent Jainist monk at the end of his life.

 The greatest Maurya king was Chandraguptas

grandson, Asoka. After fighting a bloody war and conquering a neighboring kingdom, Asoka decided to rule by Buddhist teachings. He gave up constant warfare, and tried to rule peacefully by law instead.

 Asoka had his policies carved on rocks and

pillars. The pillars advised people to be truthful and kind, and not to kill living things. Because of Asokas influence, many people were attracted to Buddhism. At the same time, he let people of other religions worship freely.

 As Buddhism became more popular, fewer

people worshiped the Hindu deities. Hindu poets began to write hymns of praise to Vishnu and Shiva in the languages of the common people, instead of Sanskrit. As the poems were shared across India, Hinduism regained popularity. Eventually, Buddhism lost most of its followers in India, but it spread to many other countries in Asia.

Section 3: Buddhism and Indias Golden Age Part 2

 Buddhism, the fourth largest religion in the

world today, started in India. Buddhism is based on the teachings (the dharma) of Siddhartha Gautama, who later became known as the Buddha (enlightened one) One of the greatest early empires in India was the Maurya Empire, founded by Chanragupta Maurya around 550 B.C.

 The greatest king of the Maurya Empire was

Chandraguptas grandson, Asoka. After conquering like his grandfather, Asoka converted to Buddhism and decided to rule his kingdom based on Buddhist teachings. Because of his influence, Buddhism became extremely popular for a time, though it eventually fell out of favor and Hinduism became the most popular religion again in India.

 Shortly after Asoka died, the Maurya Empire

collapsed because of poor rulers and enemy invasions. 500 years of conflict followed, until the Gupta family took control.

 The Gupta empire began with Chandra Gupta I

(no relation to Chandragupta Maurya!) in A.D. 320. He married a kings daughter and gained new lands, and his son expanded the empire by fighting wars. Chandra Guptas grandson, Chandra Gupta II, was the greatest ruler of the Gupta family. During his reign (A.D. 375 415) India experienced a golden age.

 Under Chandra Gupta II, Indian arts

flourished. Architects built gracefully designed temples, and artists painted murals and sculpted statues. Many plays based on the Mahabharata were written during this time. Poetry also flourished under the Guptas.

 Indian mathematics was among the most

advanced in the world. Indian scholars invented: The numeral system we use today The decimal system The symbol for zero One mathematician figured out the length of a solar year, and estimated the value of pi.

 During the Gupta Empire, knowledge of

astronomy increased. Almost 1,000 years before Columbus, Indian astronomers proved that the earth was round by observing a lunar eclipse. Doctors also added new techniques to the ancient practice of Ayurvedic medicine, which promotes health through diet and exercise.

 Indian artisans developed advanced methods

of metallurgy (metal working). There is an iron pillar outside of Delhi, India that is over 20 feet high and has been standing since A.D. 400. No one else was able to make such a large piece of iron for at least another 1,000 years. Unlike most iron, the pillar has resisted rust for 16 centuries.

 Traders of the Gupta Empire sold Indian

goods such as cotton and ivory to foreign merchants. Indian merchants bought Chinese goods, such as silk. Both traders and missionaries spread Indian culture and religious beliefs.

Section 4: The Legacy of India

 Two of the greatest empires of Ancient India

were the Maurya and Gupta empires. In the Gupta empire, under the reign of Chandra Gupta II, Indian arts flourished. There were also many advances made in the fields of mathematics, science, and medicine.

 Indian achievements have influenced the

whole world in many ways. In ancient times, Indian religion and art was spread to other parts of Asia by traders and merchants. Indian culture continues to influence our modern world in the areas of religion, art, and mathematics.

 Two of the worlds largest religions, Hinduism

and Buddhism, both began in India. Some Hindu religious practices, like yoga and meditation, are popular throughout the world today. In the mid-1900s, Indian leader Mohandas Gandhi used ahimsa (nonviolence) in his fight for Indias independence from Britain. Gandhis life was an inspiration to civil rights leader Martin Luther King Jr.

 One of Indias greatest writers was Kalidasa,

who is known for his skillfully written and emotionally stirring plays. He may have been the court poet for Chandra Gupta II. Kalidasas most famous play is called Shakuntala.

Kalidasa

 In addition to literature, drama was also very

popular in ancient India. In southern India, traveling actors put on performances in cities across the region. Many modern dance forms in India come from ancient Indian techniques. Plays based on the ancient Sanskrit epic, the Mahabharata, are performed today in many Southeast Asian nations.

 Both Hindu and Buddhist art were

important in the development of art in India. The main difference between Hindu and Buddhist art was the subject matter. Buddhist art portrayed the Buddha or potential Buddhas Hindu art Hindu deities such as Vishnu and Ganesha

 Many Indian architectural trends began in

Gupta times: Building with stone rather than wood Pyramidal roof instead of flat Sculpting elaborate decorations on the roof Some of these trends can be seen in the Hindu temple complex called Angkor Wat in northwestern Cambodia.

 People in India have been using the

numerals 1-9 for more than 2000 years. Because Arab traders brought these numerals to the West, they are sometimes called Arabic numerals. Today, they are more often called HinduArabic numerals.

 The decimal number system was also first

developed in India. The name comes from the Latin word decem, which means ten Each place value is worth ten times as much as the place value to the right (Example: 5,555) In order for the decimal number system to work, a zero is needed In India, the use of the zero goes back about 1,400 years