INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR

UNDERSTANDING INDIVIDUALS

The individual is a person with distinct character and personality traits or behavioural patterns Every individual has his own individuality ,which means that the individuals who form the groups have individual difference The individual starts his development from the very moment of birth . Biological Sociological-Historical-Genetic Cultural-Environmental Hereditary factors influence the development of the individual .

Two propositions are important to understand human behaviour : 1. Behaviour is shaped by the environment 2.It is caused by certain stimuli the basic understanding arises from understanding the similarities and dissimilarities between individuals .

Skills of a Manager (Individual)

Paul Hersey and Kenneth H.Blanchard specifies the following skills for carrying out the process of management (ieplanning,organising,motivating and controlling) Technical skill Human skill Conceptual skill

 1.Technical skill- It is the ability to use knowledge,methods,techniques and equipment necessary for the performance of specific tasks acquired from experience,educationand training. 2.Human skill It is the ability and judgement in working with and through people,including an understanding of motivation and an application of effective leadership.

 3. Conceptual Skill The ability to understand the complexities of the overall organisation and where ones own operation fits into the organisation.This knowledge permits one to act according to the objectives of the total organisation rather than only on the basis of goals and needs of ones own immediate group.

Human Nature
The Greek philosophers described human nature as a rational principle governing humans in an almost law like manner . Humans are viewed as purposeful creatures who use reason to carry out the dictates of their will. One point of view was HUMAN AS INCONSISTENT,IRRESOLUTE,UNTAMABLE Another view was HUMAN- NATURE COULD BE MOULDED

Individual Behaviour
Individual behaviour means how an employee or individual behaves ,reacts or responds in a given environment. The factors which affect the human behaviour are person ,environment and the organisation itself. B=f(P,E,O) B=individual behaviour P=person E=environment O=Organisation

Differences among Individuals

Individual differences can be assessed in terms of differences in various individual characteristics These are 1.Personal factors A)Physical characteristics(Biographic charateristics) B) Personality traits(Learned characteristics) 2.Perception 3.Attitude 4.Emotions 5.Memory

 1.Physical characteristics are weight ,armspan,vital capacity,strength of the grip ,visual accuracy, appearance and countenance,facial expressions and gestures etc.evaluation of such physical characteristics is important because the Individual performance generally depends on such characteristics. Also age ,religion,marital status ,gender,experience ,ability,intelligence play big role individual difference These are personal characteristics

 2.Personality Traits Known as temperamental or emotional qualities of a person can be the essential characteristics of the behavioural patterns of the individual These traits are dominant ,cheerful,honest ,cowardly timid,moody etc. Characteristics like spirituality ,honesty,truthfulness,integrity etc are CHARACTER TRAITS Emotional maturity ,cheerfulness ,aggressiveness ,pessimism are EMOTIONAL /TEMPERAMENTAL TRAITS PERSONAL TRAITS are-cooperative attitude,meekness,humbleness etc (learned characteristics)

 3.Perception Difference in perception also substantially differentiate individuals. It is a process by which individuals organise and interpret their sensory impressions to give meaning to environment One s behaviour is based on their perception of what reality is,not on reality itself .Perception is determined by a persons needs. (learned characteristics)

 4. Attitude It is a bent of mind or predisposition to certain actions.It is a process by which people learn as a result of experience to orient themselves towards goals /objectives. It is very important in understanding individual differences. (Learned characteristics)

 5. Emotions Emotion is a complex state involving conscious feeling ,physiological changes and an evaluation of a given situation as having significance of some kind for the individual . Eg- if some one closely associated with us acts in a totally unexpected manner from what was expected by us then we would be provoked to have a strong feeling of anger ,which is our emotion.

 6. Values Values are the global beliefs that guide action and judgement across a variety of situations . It is an individuals idea of what is right ,goodor desireable.Influenced by parents ,teachers,friends ,external forces etc.It varies from person to person .It is learned characteristics.

 7. Memory It is the ability to retain and recall what is conceived .It is the faculty for keeping things in ones mind.It is closely associated with perception and learning. Thus other than these stated above interests,behaviours and approaches,motivation and various such other factors also differ from person to person and so individual behaviour may also differ.

Models of Man/Individual Behaviour

1. Rational Economic Man From organisational view managers always viewed their employees as rational beings who are motivated by money. The RATIONAL MAN/ECONOMIC MAN approach was used to understand human behaviour. This is based on McGregor s Theory X

 The basic assumptions of the concept of Rational Man are People are motivated primarily by economic incentives . As organisations control economic interests ,humans become passive agents,who are manipulated,motivated ,controlled by the organisations. Feelings of people are irrational and must be controlled to achieve rationality and self-interest. Organisations can and must be designed in such a way so as to neutralise and control peoples feelings and therefore their unpredictable gains .

 Social Man This school saw human being as a social man ie man lives in society so is influenced by social forces and seeks satisfaction of the needs which helps him survive in society. Elton Mayo conceived social concept during the Hawthorne studies

 The basic assumptions of this theory are 1.Man is motivated by social needs and efforts are directed to getting satisfaction by maintaining relationships with others . 2.Men are influenced by social groups than the incentives and control of management 3.Work done by a person is based on social norms than on physical /mental characteristics etc. 4.People react /act as group 5.Informal leaders play a big role

 3. Organisational Man This concept was introduced by William Whyte . He believed that an person should be loyal to the organisation and cooperative with his fellow workers.Any person who acts and believes in this value system is an organisation man. Every individual should sacrifice his individuality to for the sake of the group and organisation

 The major assumptions of this theory are 1.The individual by himself is isolated and meaningless.Individuals create only when they move in group.Group is a source of activity. 2.The ultimate need of any person is belongingness he wants to belong to his friends,family,relatives etc. 3.The goal of belongingness is achieved with the help of science. The basic assumption is that the organisation will look after the interest of the individual

 4. The Self Actuating Man Here the assumption is that mans inherent need is to use his capabilities and skills in such a way that he should have the satisfaction of creating certain things. Assumptions are The various needs of man can be put in an order of priority. Every unsatisfied need is a motivational factor for him . In the process of self actualisation there are various changes in behaviour of the individual and he moves from immaturity to maturity . Man is self motivated and self controlled If a man is left free he will put in his maximun efforts.

 5. The Complex Man Complex man presents the real picture of human behaviour . Assumptions are People are not only complex but also highly variable. People are capable of learning new motives through their organisational experience Peoples motives in different organisations or different sub parts of the same organisation may be different. People respond to different kinds of management strategies. It shows real situations and realities

 Thus different people have different needs and personality traits and if there is a proper match between these and the environment they operate in functional behaviour will emerge.

 MARS model of individual behaviour -- This Model is useful to understand the DRIVERS OF INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIOUR AND RESULTS. The model highlights four (4) factors that directly influence an employees voluntary behaviour and the resulting performance. These are Motivation,Ability,Role perception,and Situation Contingencies.

 The four factors are Motivation A strong motivation will help people to give their best performance to reach goals.If only people are motivated they will give give their maximum productivity. It affects direction,intensity,and persistence of individual behaviour.

 Ability It is the capacity or capabilities of an individual to perform the various tasks in a job.It is the criterion to determine what a person can do .It can be both intellectual and physical. If performance of a job requires specific ability its the managements job to to identify the employees having such specific ability .

 3.Role perceptions A persons beliefs about what behaviours are appropriate in particular situations are known as role perceptions For accurate role perceptions an employee must understand the specific tasks assigned to him ,the importance of the tasks and only this will help him to exert effort towards correct goals.

 4. Situational contingencies Job performance of an employee is also affected by the situational contingencies ie the conditions beyond the employees immediate control at least in the short term. contingencies which originate from the external environment are generally beyond the control of employees and the organisation.

LEARNING
WITHOUT LEARNING ,THE WISE BECOME FOOLISH;BY LEARNING ,THE FOOLISH BECOMES WISE .LEARN AS IF YOU COULD NEVER HAVE ENOUGH OF LEARNING ;AS IF YOU MIGHT MISS SOMETHING- CONFUCIUS

LEARNING

What is Learning ??

LEARNING IS ANY RELATIVE CHANGE IN BEHAVIOUR THAT OCCURS AS A RESULT OF EXPERIENCE . Learning involves change. Any observable change in behaviour is prima facie evidence that learning has taken place. It is the basis of the human development process Its a continuous process changing oneself A permanent change in the behaviour of an individual is an indication of learning.

Definitions
Learning can be defined AS RELATIVELY PERMANENT CHANGE IN THE BEHAVIOUR THAT OCCURS AS A RESULT OF EXPERIENCE OR REINFORCED PRACTICE . FRED LUTHENS Learning is a process by which individuals acquire knowledge and experience which they apply to future related behaviour Schiffman &Kanuk

 Learning is the process of having ones behaviour modified ,more or less permanently , by what he does and the consequences of his action ,or by what he observes Steers and Porter.

 Self-management Learning techniques that allow individuals to manage their own behaviour so that less external management control is necessary .ie reduce the need for managerial control.

Characteristics of learning
1. Learning is a psychological process and a behavioural reaction 2.It is the cognitive function of the human brain 3.Learning involves permanent change 4.change in behaviour is brought about by the practice of experimentation 5.Learning occurs through repetitions or reinforced practices /experience 6.It involves responses from outside environment 7.Learning disappears with inadequate opportunities to display skills 8.It is related to the future ,based on past actions.

Principles of Learning
Reinforcement is the single most important principle of learning.It refers to the repetition of response to the stimulus.It also refers to the consequence of behaviour.(Thorndike s law of effect - of the several responses made to the same situation those which are accompanied or closely followed by satisfaction will be more likely to reoccur.)

In the process of learning there are various types of reinforcements Positive reinforcement It is stimulus presented in a situation which strengthens associations between stimulus and response.It encourages displaying similar kind of behaviour.showing appreciation of good work done ,reward for better effort. Etc Negative reinforcement It is averting a consequence or removing a positive consequence upon response.Its also called avoidance.Punishment is one form of negative reinforcement.

 Intrinsic reinforcement The person himself mediates intrinsic reinforcement.It is directly related to the actual performance of the job.It represents internal feelings of a person. Eg-Developing a sense of commitment to a job etc. Extrinsic reinforcement- It consists of factors in the environment in which the job is performed.It is external Eg-supervisors observing the work of subordinates and appreciating it is extrinsic .

 Primary reinforcement It is innately satisfying to people and directly reduces their primary motivational drives. Secondary reinforcement It is a response conditioned by past experience. Eg- A worker who out performed his coworkers received appreciation from his coworkers.

LEARNING PROCESS
ELEMENT OF LEARNING PROCESS ARE : 1.Cues : a CUE IS AN OBJECT OR INFORMATION ,ALSO CALLED A STIMULUS THAT DRAWS ATTENTION OF AN INDIVIDUAL .Strong cues provide direction to human motives 2.Drives : It is an action produced by a strong stimuli or cue.It is the basis of human motivation.It is physiological (human body)or psychological(human brain)

 3. Responses : It is any action or reaction shown by an individual to stimuli.the response may be overt,that is physically observable./expression of behaviour. 4. Reinforcement reinforcement is bringing strength of association between a cue and response .A single response is less likely to bring about a change in behaviour.Repetion of response is known as reinforcement .Individual learning occurs when the same response is observed for a similar cue.If response is positive there is greater probability of learning and if negative lesser probability of learning

 5. Retention Retention is storing information in the brain.a reinforced stimulus becomes stable and consistent over a period.The more the strength of response the greater is the retention. 6.Spontaneous recovery A non-reinforced response is known as spontaneous recovery.It is a one time response.It does not lead to change.

 7. Extinction - Extinction is loss of memory .If a response is not reinforced ,individuals are likely to forget the response,which slowly disappears from the mind .

Theories of learning
The theories which explain the process of pattern of behaviour are : Classical conditioning Operant conditioning Social learning Single loop(lays emphasis on detecting an error and correcting it ) and double loop learning( occurs as a response to the situation .it involves modification of norms,policies and objectives) Kolbs learning cycle.

Modelling
Modelling is instrumental in learning .It is the process of imitating and learning from others .Modeling involves two stages in learning process Stage I Observation Sensory organs of individuals collect information about actions of others,this is observation.This actions or behaviour and consequences are stored in human brain with the help of various mental pictures. Eg-THE LEADER OF EMPLOYEES UNION MAY OBSERVE THE VOICE MODULATION OF MANAGER OR OTHER UNION LEADERS.HE STORES THE MODULATION IN HIS BRAIN FOR IMITATION IN HIS SPEECH.

 Stage II Learning Individuals act or behave based on mental pictures. If consequences are positive they repeat the same acts.Otherwise no response is shown.Hence when positive consequences are felt learning occurs. Eg-The trade union leader who used executive accent of voice modulation in a meeting with the workers,they may not applaud .So he tries to quit that modulation

 Modelling involves four sub-processes.ie Attention process Individual pays attention and recognises critical features of a model .therefore only attractive ,important ,reinforced and contrast characteristics receive attention. Eg-the dressing style of a successful sales person may be closely observed by the cosales persons in order to imitate the style.

 2. Retention process Models actions are likely to be remembered if the actions are conforming to the individuals requirements.they are used in their future actions. 3. Motor reproduction process- Individuals convert observed models into actions It is imitating the behaviour. 4. Reinforcement process Individuals are likely to act according to the model as long as positive rewards are associated with the actions

Pavlovs theory of classical conditioning

Also called 1.Conditioned response theory 2.Respondent conditioning 3.Pavlovian conditioning CONDITIONING MEANS MODIFICATION OF A NATURAL RESPONSE. CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IS A FORM OF LEARNING IN WHICH TWO STIMULI ARE PRESENTED TOGETHER AND THE RESPONSE ORIGINALLY ELICITED BY ONE OF THEM COMES TO BE ELICITED BY THE OTHER.

Pavlovs experiment
Pavlov conducted a number of experiments in dogs to study how the stimuli and responses are associated.By a simple surgical operation the flow of saliva from a dogs mouth was transferred to a glass tube .At the sight of food ,the dog salivated .Then ,immediately before giving food to the dog ,a bell was rung .Experiment was repeated for seven days.After seven days ,he rung the bell only,but food was not given to the dog.still the dog salivated in the same measure as before.

 Thus the response of salivation which was originally confined to the sight of food (unconditioned response)was now transferred to the sounding of the bell (conditioned response). Salivation at the sound of the bell is an acquired response ,and this acquired response was called CONDITIONED RESPONSE(REFLEX). The process of strengthening a conditioned response through reinforcement is called conditioning.

Diagramatised as Before conditioning Food (US)-----Salivation (UR) Bell (CS)-------Listening(UR) Conditioning Process Bell (CS)------Salivation (R) Food(US)----- After Conditioning Bell (CS)----Salivation(CR) --------------------------------------------------------------------USUnconditioning Stimulus,UR---Unconditioned Response CS---Conditioned Stimulus,CR---Conditioned Response

Classical Conditioning
The individual Stimulus (S) 1.Is struck by pin 2.Is tapped below Kneecap 3.Is shocked by electric Current 4.Is surprised by loud sound

Response (R) 1. flinches 2. flexes lower leg

3. jumps/screams 4. jumps/screams

 Thus in classical conditioning , a conditioned stimulus (CS)regularly precedes an unconditioned stimulus (US) that evokes an unconditioned response. The response evoked by the conditioned stimulus after learning is known as the conditioned response.

Illustration
Alloy Engineering Co is a moderately sized company with about 250 employees .Until Mr.Kirpal took over as General Manager the co had an average productivity level .After taking over Mr.K studied the problem .He found that the co had a policy of giving a bonus to the workers in the month of August .Also he noticed that productivity was higher in the month of August.He found that there is a relationship between productivity and bonus as employees considered the bonus a motivation.Thus he considered BONUS WAS AN UNCONDITIONAL STIMULUS,AND MONTH IN WHICH BONUS WAS GIVEN ACTED AS A CONDITIONED STIMULUS.

 So he designed a new policy for giving the bonus.On a particular day in each month he announced that a bonus would be given . The employees thus learned that in certain months they would get an additional incentive in the form of a bonus.So they started producing more each month .This happened without their being told that a bonus would be paid in a particular month.After some time Mr.K discontinued the scheme temporarily and found that productivity did not drop.He found that employees have learnt that every month is a stimulus.

Skinners Theory of Operant Conditioning

Also called 1.Instrumental conditioning 2.Reward learning OPERANT CONDITIONING IS A PROCESS OF LEARNING THROUGH WHICH ORGANISMS LEARN TO REPEAT BEHAVIOURS THAT YIELD POSITIVE OUTCOMES OR PERMIT THEM TO AVOID OR ESCAPE FROM NEGATIVE OUTCOMES.

The theory is called operant conditioning as it is based on certain operations or actions which an organism has to carryout . Skinner gives two types of responses: a) Elicited responses (respondents) B)Emitted responses(operants) Responses elicited by specific stimuli are called respondents. Responses which is not correlated with any known stimulus ,but are emitted are known as operants.

Skinners experiment
A special box called Skinner box to conduct experiments..It may contain a rat,a lever,and a device for delivering food pellet .Everytime the rat presses the lever it gets food.Gradually the rat learns to press the lever to get the food and the response by lever pressing is strengthened because it brings food.

 Thus according to this R_S formula ,when a desired response is emitted a reinforcing stimulus is presented.A desireable response is conditioned by constantly reinforcing it. Reinforcement must come after the response has been made.and not before it. Operant conditioning refers to more of voluntary responses which an organism performs deliberately to produce a desirable outcomes.

OPERANT CONDITIONING
The individual Response (R) Stimulus (S) 1.Work 1. is paid 2.Talks to others 2. meets people 3.Enters a restaurant 3. obtains food 4.Enters a library 4. finds a book 5.Increases productivity 5. receives merit pay 6.Completes a difficult Assignment 6. receives praise and promotion

Reinforcer and Reinforcement

Any stimulus whose presentation or removal increases the chances of occurences of a response is called a reinforcer. The application or removal of a stimulus to increase the strength of a behaviour is called reinforcement.

Two types of Reinforcers

1Positive reinforcement .2.Negative reinforcement. 1.Positive reinforcement It is a stimulus which when added to the situation ,increases the likelihood of the preceding response(behaviour).Here a pleasant experience is given after the response occurs and this increases the probability that the response will occur again. Eg- Food,drink,money or in organisational contextA bosss praise,reward ,an affectionate pat at the back etc are positive reinforcers.

 2. Negative reinforcement It is a stimulus which when removed from the situation increases the likelihood of desireable behaviour.Here an unpleasant experience is withdrawn from the situation and this increases the probability of occurrence of the response Eg- An electric shock,loud noise etc. EgIn organisational context- A boss saying to the subordinates that whoever comes on time to the organisation will be exempted from working after the official time schedule or can go home early.

The schedule of reinforcement Continuous reinforcement schedule Fixed interval reinforcement schedule Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule Variable reinforcement schedule.

Single loop &Double loop learning theory

Argyris and Schon has proposed the single loop and double loop theory. Where it is stated that --(Learning involves the detection and correction of errors.when something goes wrong it is suggested that we should look for other strategies that will address and work within the situational parameters). Single loop learning involves that the given goal,values,plans and rules are followed rather than questioned . When error is detected and corrected if it permits the organisation to carry out its present policies and objectives it is then that error and correction process is single looped learning .

Here goals ,values,frameworks are taken for granted to significant extent . Eg- A teacher who believes that she has a class of stupid students will communicate expectations such that the children behave stupidly. She asks questions, creates situations etc where they behave stupidly. It is self fulfilling . OR If a manager feels his subordinates are passive ,dependent he will allot work schedule which require dependence and guidance from the managers part.

 Double loop learning happens when an error occurs and when it is detected and corrected in such a way that it involves modification of an organisations underlying norms,policies and objectives. Double loop learning is an alternative response that questions the situational parameters themselves and makes a critical scrutiny. It leads to an alteration in the situational parameters. It involves questioning ,framing and learning new systems. It is more creative and flexible.

Kolbs Cyclic theory of learning

Kolbs proposed the cycle of experiential learning of adult. There are four parts Experiencing the learner has some concrete experience or is helped to have experience during the training programme. Processing The learner reflects on and analyses the experiences individually and in a group

 Generalising the learner forms a tentative theory or a way to explain the data based on experience. Applying the learner tries the new behaviour or uses it in the day to day work followed by a new experience and the cycle continues. ( tacit learning is learning by doing )

Types of Learning
The 4-level model describes the learning types: Level I Learning facts,knowledge,processes and procedures Level II Learning new job skills that are transferable to other situations . Level III Learning to adapt It is experimenting and deriving lessons from success and failure Level IV Learning to learn .This is all about creativity and innovation rather than just adapting to the future .

Organisational learning culture

Organisational Learning culture----supporting employees for continuous learning through training and development ,performance appraisal and rewards and this therefore leads to new behaviour of creativity ,innovation and knowledge generation

Types of Learning Organisation

The primary responsibility of any business is to enable economic performance .It is also responsible to its customers and society at large.The list of corporate responsibility is exhaustive.It is responsible to the state,the community ,society and to global citizens. In order to fulfill the responsibilities all organisations must convert themselves to learning organisations.

An organisation converts itself into a learning organisationnin any of the following ways Learning organisations are developed using the 4-level model of learning (learning facts,knowledge,process,,learning new skills,learning to adapt and learning to learn) 1.Adaptive organisation 2.Caring organisation 3.Team building organisation 4.Innovative organisation.

Characteristics of a learning organisation

Systematic problem solving Experimentation with new approaches Learning from own experiences and past history Learning from experiences and practices of other organisation Transferring knowledge quickly and efficiently throughout the organisation. Provides new experiences from which people learn Provides feedback on performance and achieved learning

 Facilitates the use of training on the job Provides individuals with regular reviews on performance and learning needs It turns data into useful knowledge quickly and at the right time and place.

Self Directed learning

The concept of self directed learning involves encouraging individuals to take responsibilities for their own learning needs ,either to improve performance in their present job or to satisfy their career aspirations. It can be based on a process of recording achievement and action planning which involves individuals reviewing what they have learnt,what they achieved ,what their goals are,how they are going to achieve those goals and what new learning they need to acquire.

 Mumford (1994) suggests that self-directed learning can be carried out as follows: Identify the individuals learning style Review how far their learning is encouraged or restricted by their learning style Review their core learning skills of observation and reflection,analysis ,creativity ,decisionmaking and evaluation.and find out how to make effective use of them

 Look for potential helpers in the self development process Draw up learning objectives and plan of action. Set aside some time each day to answer the questionWhat did you learn today?

 Self directed learning is based on the principle that people learn and retain more if they find things out for themselves . There is a need to create a climate of awareness about the opportunities for learning and development and to redesign training events to develop training styles and skills.

 Thus organisations can encourage selfdirected learning by ensuring that learners: Define for themselves ,with whatever guidance they may require ,what they need to know to perform their job effectively Are given guidance on where they can get the material or information which will help them learn

 Prepare a learning plan and programme as part of a learning contract Prepare a personal development plan setting out what they need to learn ,how they should develop and the actions they need to take to achieve learning and development of goals.

E-learning
Defined as A way of working ,studying and problem solving that reflects the growing connectivity of people and learning resources. The shift in e-learning is : First generation Distance learning Programmed Learning to text Tutor to learner One to one

Second Generation Computer based training CD ROMS and other media Tutor to learners One to many

Role of HRD
1.Developing collective intelligence within organisations and organisational forms supporting such a need thus eliminating the holding of knowledge in separate compartments at different levels. 2.Understanding the importance of knowledge and in particular tacit knowledge ,which has to be recognised and valorized in so far as it is embedded in human resources.

 3.Moving from training based development policies towards new policies fostering learning in different ways 4.The main motivator for wanting to become a learning organisation is the desire to become more client centred by continuous improvement and innovation

5. The envisioned role of HRD is to Support business Support informal learning Support knowledge sharing Develop and coordinate training 6. Change HRD development practices 7. HRD training related strategies still fulfill a significanr role to improve initiates of employees

THUS LEARNING IS THE PROCESS BY WHICH A PERSON CONSTRUCTS KNOWLEDGE,SKILLS AND CAPABILITIES.

Case Situation
Divya , Head Human resources for a large manufacturing firm is concerned that 40% of the clerical staff hired last year lacked basic reading ,writing and filing skills. She thinks that these staff should be terminated as early as possible.Do you agree to this? What would you do if you had been in her place? Or You have joined a small start up company as CEO.what measures would you take to foster business relevant learning processes and build learning culture.

Assignments
Understand & write about Learning Organisations E-learning Learning Pyramid

THANKYOU