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Chapter 19
Dr S.L Gupta
CATEGORICAL MEASURES: A commonly used expression for nominal and ordinal measures. CONTINUOUS MEASURES: A commonly used expression for interval and ratio measures.
Dr S.L Gupta
Dr S.L Gupta
Frequency Analysis
Dr S.L Gupta
Use of Percentages
Percentages are very useful for interpreting the results of categorical analyses and should be included whenever possible.
Unless your sample size is VERY large, however, report percentages as whole numbers (i.e., no decimals)
Dr S.L Gupta
Frequency Analysis
Researchers almost always work with valid percentages which are simply percentages after taking out cases with missing data on the variable being analyzed.
Note: In the example, there were no missing cases. As a result, the Percent column entries were identical to the Valid Percent column entries.
Dr S.L Gupta
Dr S.L Gupta
Frequency Analysis
Dr S.L Gupta
Dr S.L Gupta
Dr S.L Gupta
Confidence Interval
A projection of the range within which a population parameter will lie at a given level of confidence based on a statistic obtained from a probabilistic sample.
This is why you need to draw a probability sample!
Dr S.L Gupta
where z = z score associated with the desired level of confidence; p = the proportion obtained from the sample; and n = the number of valid cases overall on which the proportion was based.
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL:
Dr S.L Gupta
Dr S.L Gupta
Therefore, we can be 95% confident that the proportion of people in the population who would respond that they had financed their most recent car purchase is between .21 and .39, inclusive.
Dr S.L Gupta
Dr S.L Gupta
Dr S.L Gupta
Dr S.L Gupta
very poor
Dental technicians Receptionist Dentist (2) (10) (17)
poor neutral good (6) (16) (17) (36) (18) (35) (32) (36) (21)
very good
(24) (20) (10)
Receptionist
Dentist (n=100)
56%
31%
3.40
2.90
(1.25)
(1.21)
Dr S.L Gupta
where z = z score associated with the desired level of confidence; s = the sample standard deviation; and n = the total number of cases used to calculate the mean.
CONFIDENCE INTERVAL:
Dr S.L Gupta
Dr S.L Gupta
Therefore, we can be 95% confident that the mean number of family members in the population lies somewhere between 3.6 and 4.4, inclusive.
Dr S.L Gupta
Hypothesis Testing
THE ISSUE: How can we tell if a particular result in the sample represents the true situation in the population or simply occurred by chance?
Hypotheses
Unproven propositions about some phenomenon of interest.
Dr S.L Gupta
Hypothesis Testing
Null Hypothesis (Ho) The hypothesis that
a proposed result is not true for the population. Researchers typically attempt to reject the null hypothesis in favor of some alternative hypothesis.
Collect the Data and Compute the Value of the Test Statistic Appropriate for the Sampling Distribution
Determine the Probability of the Test Statistic under the Null Hypothesis Using the Sampling Distribution Specified in Step 2 Compare the Obtained Probability with the Specified Significance Level and Then Reject or Do Not Reject the Null Hypothesis on the Basis of the Comparison Dr S.L Gupta
Significance Level ()
The acceptable level of Type I error selected by the researcher, usually set at 0.05. Type I error is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is actually true for the population.
Dr S.L Gupta
p-value
The probability of obtaining a given result if in fact the null hypothesis were true in the population. A result is regarded as statistically significant if the p-value is less than the chosen significance level of the test.
Dr S.L Gupta
Viewing the or p levels as if they are somehow related to the probability that the research hypothesis is true (e.g., a p-value such as p>.001 is highly significant and therefore more valid than p<.05).
Dr S.L Gupta
Dr S.L Gupta
Dr S.L Gupta
where p = proportion from the sample, = the proportion standard to be achieved, p = the standard error of the proportion, and n = number of respondents in the sample.
Dr S.L Gupta
where x = sample mean, = the population standard, sx = the standard error of the mean, s = sample standard deviation, and n = sample size.
Dr S.L Gupta
where x = sample mean, = the population standard, sx = the standard error of the mean, s = sample standard deviation, and n = sample size.
Dr S.L Gupta