TO COVER

PAPERS THESES REPORTS

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Writing Research Papers

Many students share a common idea about the task of writing a research paper: Choose a topic Do research on the topic Write an essay based on your research
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Writing Research Papers

Yet the comments from the professor may be disappointing:

"No research question" Too general" or "Not sufficiently narrow" "Improper use of sources" "Much of this material appears to be plagiarized" "Inadequate bibliography" "No journal articles"SLIDE #/124

Writing Research Papers

Topic Selection
Most topics you start with are too broad to be useful research papers.
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Writing Research Papers

Topic Selection
If you leave a topic broad, it will be superficial.
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Writing Research Papers

Consider this illustration:

If your topic is narrow, you can deal with it in depth. If your topic is broad, you will deal with it only in a shallow way.
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Writing Research Papers

Thus you want to avoid a broad survey in a research paper. Instead, focus on a narrow topic so you can deal with it in depth.
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Writing Research Papers

The Research Question

A research essay is intended to allow you to answer a question or controversy related to the topic you are studying.
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Writing Research Papers

How can a student develop a proper research question?

Develop a few possible research questions based on what you find in reference sources. These should be one sentence questions that are simple and clear. Choose one of these questions to be the research question for your essay.

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Writing Research Papers

Every research essay should have only one research question. You do not want to have an essay that states, "The following paper will examine __________ and will also _____________ and will also ____________."
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You are allowed to quote from the things you have read, but there are definite rules for doing this:

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The quotations should be short (usually 5 lines or less) and few. It is best to have no more than one short quotation per page of your essay. Quotations must have quotation marks (" ") around them or be put in an indented block (for longer quotations) to make it clear that they are quotations.

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All quotations must have a note (footnote, endnote, or short note) attached to them so that its very clear what source you are quoting. Every item quoted must also be in your bibliography. You cannot just quote long paragraphs without using quotation marks and then adding a citation, footnote or endnote indicating what source you used.

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Most of your work is to be in your own words. This means:

That you show you have understood what you are reading by interpreting it in your own words. That you are not just paraphrasing. Paraphrasing involves rewriting each sentence of something you have read, changing the wording a little bit. This is not enough to make the material "your own words."

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Most of your work is to be in your own words. This means:

That you show that you can interpret what the writer is saying without needing to use many of the writers words.

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The readers are mainly interested in seeing how well YOU have understood and digested the material. They do not want you simply to repeat what youve read but to interpret what youve read, expressing your own understanding in your own words.

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What is Plagiarism?
Plagiarism is using another writers words or unique ideas as if they were your own. The professor believes those are your own words or ideas, because you have not shown that they came from someone else.

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Why is plagiarism so serious a problem?

The main reason why academic institutions punish plagiarism so strictly is that it is dishonesty, the telling of a lie.

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What, then, is the best way to use research from other authors?
Quote only when something an author has said really explains well what you are trying to say. Quotations should be short, and there should be few of them.

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General

The goal of the research paper is not to gather information and report on it. Research papers are to study certain topic, develop a research question, and answer it using the materials you have studied plus your own results and analysis.

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The information you discover in your research is thus only the foundation, the first part, of the task. What is more important is your ability to use that information and your own results to advance the worlds knowledge.

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The components
Title Abstract Introduction Experimental Results & Discussion Conclusions (or Summary) Acknowledgments & References
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What do I do first?
Certainly NOT write in the order the sections appear. Perhaps as follows.
Results & Discussion Conclusions Experimental Introduction Abstract Title Organize References Acknowledgments
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Results
A paper is centered around the Results
First get them organized. What to include? Any photographs? How will I present them - figures and/or tables? Do I need to combine results with discussion? Some results be presented as Supplementary Material? [website allows this]
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Results - organization
Tables Graphs
Photographs

Exact, Objective Check accuracy Some guesswork?

Representative? Subjective

Supplementary Material
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Figures
Make sure each one is important. There is no need to have a photograph that does not convey relevant information! Do not duplicate data in both figures and tables. Which shows the data more clearly? Often a figure is better in the main body with tables in Supplementary Material.
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Discussion
If possible, separate from the Results BUT Sometimes a result, or set of results, must be discussed in order to logically point to the next stage in the experiment. In this case combine Results and Discussion.

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Discussion
Keep it logical. Do not ramble. Compare your results with those of others. References are really important here. Be careful to show where your work has advanced the subject. Try to lead naturally to the Conclusions.
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Conclusions
This is NOT the same as a summary. The Abstract is usually a summary. A reader who has the paper will certainly have the Abstract. Preference is to have the Conclusions as a list, at least to begin with. If it is a summary -give it that heading and make it more than the Abstract. NEVER make conclusions that cannot be justified or are not mentioned in the main text. The conclusions ought to be logical extension of the results
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Experimental: Lab and Models

This section has two purposes: To convince readers that the work has been done systematically and thoroughly using appropriate equipment/models. Should contain ALL information needed for another person to repeat the experiment. To allow readers to repeat the experiments/simulations if they wish. To check (doubtful) results To prepare the same materials, etc.
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Introduction and References

Why together? Because usually a minimum of 30%, and as many as 70+% of all references are cited in the Introduction. Most Introductions are unnecessarily long. A reference is something you may wish to refer to for further information.
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What is the purpose of the Introduction?

A brief, or complete, history of the subject? What does the reader need to know? What will the reader already know? BUT Some reviewers are upset if their papers are not referenced. The Citation Index!!
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Titles
Be straightforward and precise:
Improved mechanical properties
Which ones? Strength? Stiffness? For what applications? Better for one application may be the opposite for another.

Activated carbons produced at low temperature

80 K is low! 500C is not.

CNT solution in organic acids

All? Which did you investigate? Fumic and acetic.

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Abstract KISS
In this paper we report new results on the successful preparation of
1. We know it is not a different paper, but this one. 2. We know it is you. 3. We know the results are new - we would not publish if they were old. 4. We assume the experiment was successful you do not usually report failures!
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Abstract
Simply tell the reader two things:
1. What was done. 2. Important results obtained.

Do not:
1. Provide history or narrative. 2. Speculate - possible uses, etc. 3. Include data that is not in the manuscript.
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A recent example.

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SUBMITTED
This paper presents the development of activated carbons (ACs) for a 4.5 K sorption cooler for ESAs Darwin mission. A sorption cooler has two parts: (i) cold stage; (ii) sorption compressor. ACs are very interesting candidates for sorption compressors because large amounts of gas can be adsorbed reversibly. In the present paper, ACs with different surface area, micropore size distribution and packing density were prepared from an anthracite and bituminous coals. The development of porosity was carried out by different activation methods using KOH, NaOH and CO2 as activating agents. Some ACs were agglomerated using different binders to prepare activated carbon monoliths (ACMs). In order to predict the performance of these materials in Helium sorption compressors, Helium adsorption isotherms were measured up to 35 bar in a cryogenic volumetric characterization set-up, at different temperatures (from 20 K up to 150 K). Moreover, other measurements were carried out, including packing density, mechanical properties (compression strength, vibration tests), thermal expansion and also pressure-drop measurements. From the results obtained in this study, an ACM with a high helium adsorption/desorption capacity, high density, low pressure drop, low thermal expansion and good mechanical properties was prepared and

applied successfully in a 4.5 K sorption cooler. (195 words)

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Edited Abstract
For use in a 4.5 K sorption cooler, activated carbons (ACs) with different surface areas, micropore size distributions and packing densities were prepared from anthracite and bituminous coals. The development of porosity was carried out using KOH, NaOH and CO2 as activating agents. Some ACs were combined with different binders to prepare activated carbon monoliths. In order to predict the performance of thesematerials in helium sorption compressors, helium adsorption isotherms were measured up to 35 bar in a cryogenic volumetric characterization apparatus, at different temperatures (20 to 150 K). Packing density, mechanical properties (compression strength, vibration tests), thermal expansion and pressure-drop measurements were also investigated. From the results, a monolith with a high helium adsorption/desorption capacity, high density, low pressure drop, low thermal expansion and good mechanical properties was prepared and used successfully.(134 words, >30% less)
What were the binders? What was the successful monolith? Were commercial materials compared?

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Correct this Abstract!

In this study, entangled and bundled MWNTs produced in different temperature and catalysis by CVD techniques were adopted to fabricate MWNTs/PA6 composites. The results demonstrated the better mechanical properties were achieved for bundled MWNTs than entangled MWNTs. With addition of only 1.0wt% MWNTs into PA6 matrix, the tensile strength and modulus were increased up to 15.6% and 16.5% respectively. The storage modules of the two kinds of MWNTs/PA6 composites at 40C increased about 30%, and the Tg increase to 61.3 and 63.3C respectively from 57.7C of neat PA6.

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Better?
Entangled and bundled MWCNTs produced by CVD at different temperatures and using different catalysts were used to fabricate MWCNT/PA6 composites. Better mechanical properties were achieved for bundled MWCNTs than for entangled MWCNTs. With the addition of only 1.0wt% MWCNTs to the PA6 matrix, the tensile strength and modulus were increased by 15.6% and 16.5% respectively. The storage moduli of the two MWCNT/PA6 composites at 40C increased about 30%, and the Tg increased from 57.7C for neat PA6 to 61.3 and 63.3C for the bundled and entangled MWCNTs, respectively.

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The Submission Process

Read the Guide for Authors. PLEASE!
Section headings. Reference format. Length restrictions.

You MUST submit using the website. Make sure you include suggestions for international reviewers. If a revision, include responses to reviewers.
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Submission
If the Editor-in-Chief has told you to resubmit - true for most papers from Poland. Make sure you do as requested and carefully follow each point in the Resubmit letter. If you do not agree with some of my suggestions, please include a cover letter to explain why this is so. Be sensible! If I correct something in the Abstract, ask yourself whether it needs to be corrected elsewhere?

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Some English problems

We do not usually use plural nouns as adjectives - carbon fiber composites not carbon fibers composites. Do not use hyphens unless necessary to clarify meaning. Chinese food seller!
Chinese-food seller - a person who sells Chinese food Chinese food-seller - a Chinese person who sells food
Boron-containing carbon means carbon which contains boron, whereas Boron containing carbon means boron which contains carbon!
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Some English problems - articles

of is usually preceded and followed by the
the dimensions of the sample were measured the speed of the car BUT .the speed of light

Some nationalities tend to use the where not necessary and omit a where it is necessary
The FTIR is one of the typical methods used to characterise the chemically modified nanotubes.
FTIR is a typical method used to characterise chemically...

We obtained black solid after the reduction of the.

We obtained a black solid after reduction of the.

Of course the meaning is clear in both cases

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Some English problems

Literal translation is often wrong!

This is the reason why some samples gave different results. is correct. NOT It is the reason why

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Respectively
The word is used to link items in two or more lists in the order in which they appear in those lists. To say that samples were heat treated at 450C and 700C respectively is incorrect unless there is a list of two samples.
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Latin phrases
In situ - means in the place. All things happen in a place! Use it ONLY to indicate that something is taking place where it will later be used. Via - by is usually enough & simpler e.g. (for example) and i.e. (that is, or that is to say)

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Conclusions
Read the Guide for Authors. Take time! Organize. Be honest. Remember to make Title, Abstract & Paper independently understandable. Pay careful attention to the comments of the Editor and the Reviewers. Do not waste their time!
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Thank you for your attention.

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How to write a Thesis?

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What Is a Thesis?
An argument to support a hypothesis An original piece of research The product of an apprenticeship Something that could be published

Thesis is nothing but a transference of bones from one graveyard to another . Frank Dobie SLIDE #/124

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Definition
A thesis for the Ph.D. (dissertation) must be a distinctive contribution to the knowledge of the subject and afford evidence of originality shown by the discovery of new facts and/or by the exercise of independent critical power.
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LAY-OUT
First Chapter: Introduction Last Chapter: Conclusion and Suggestions Three Parts: 1. Preliminary pages 2. Main body 3. Reference section
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Getting Started
Decide your title Write your title page Start your document Look at other theses in your area Plan your argument You can always change things later But you cant change anything unless you have something to change
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Plan Your Argument

Introduction Problem Whats in the literature Method Solution Results

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Contents
Title conveys a message Abstract for the librarian and announcement, bait Contents listing shows that everything is there Acknowledgements Introduction I am doing the following Review of Previous work show you know the subject -> why you do your work Philosophy of the approach show you can pick out an important problem Plan of Attack show you approached the problem in a systematic manner
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Contents

Cont.

Description of the work details, so that others can follow what you did Critical analysis of the results show you understand the limitations Future work show you know whats missing Conclusions repetition of the intro, but with reference to detail References cover the field; examiners will look for key dereferences Appendix the gruesome details that would clutter the description
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Title

Concise Descriptive

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Abstract
A brief summary of 150-300 words Research Question A rationale for the study The hypothesis The methodology The main findings

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Introduction
Provides a necessary background for research problem Begin with a general statement of the problem area Focus on specific research problem Justification of the proposed study

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Literature review
Functions: Ensures that you are not reinventing the wheel Give credit to those laying the ground work Demonstrate your knowledge about of the problem

Convince readers that you proposed research will make a significant contribution
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Literature review Cont,d

Make use of subheading to bring order Focus, unite and cohere your discussion Cite influential papers Keep up the recent developments

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Methods

Plan to tackle the problem Shows that your approach is most appropriate

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Discussion

Mention the limitations and weaknesses of your research

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Bibliography
Keep a database of complete references Use a consistent citation style Use a tool (Endnote, Bibtex, etc.) Attention to detail is important (correct spellings!) Keep complete references (page numbers, volume,location and dates for proceedings, etc.)
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Bibliography

Cont..

Find out what the local rules are for citation style If there are no rules use [Author Year] or [Author1,Author2, Author3, Year] so your name shows up! Assume the reader is familiar with the main references (but dont skip any)

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Reviewing
Get other people to read your drafts Peers will give friendly comments and typically have time on their hands Advisor will steer you Above all: Get the bugs out before the committee sees it

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In Summary
Start writing today (never tomorrow) Make up a title page for inspiration Write down your argument succinctly Turn the argument into a chapter plan Maintain a file of all the stuff to use Dont be afraid to change the plan

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In Summary Cont..
Know your audience Help them understand Keep it short Use signposts Get the contents right Make sure youve covered the bases

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PLAGIARISM
Plagiarism means using other writers ideas, words or frameworks without acknowledgement. You are falsely claiming that the work is your own. This can range from deliberate plagiarism to splicing phrases.

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Limits of Plagiarism

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What are reviewers looking for?

Review of literature
Is the literature relevant? Is the review critical or just descriptive? Is it comprehensive? Does it link to the methodology in the thesis? Does it summarize the essential aspects?

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What are reviewers looking for?

Methodology
Is there a clear hypothesis? Are precautions taken against bias? Are the limitations identified? Is the data collected appropriately? Is the methodology justified?

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What are reviewers looking for?

Presentation of results
Have the hypotheses in fact been tested? Are the results shown to support the hypothesis? Is the data properly analyzed? Are the results presented clearly? Are patterns identified and summarized?
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What are reviewers looking for?

Discussion and Conclusions Are the limits of the research identified? Are the main points to emerge identified? Are links made to the literature? Is there theoretical development? Are the speculations well grounded?

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ITS ALL OVER

Youve finished writing & defending your thesis What do you do next? Turn it into a book Publish some journal articles around it Make copies for your parents, Make a copy for yourself
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STEPS IN WRITING REPORT

Logical analysis of subject of matter. Preparation of the final outline. Preparation of the rough draft. Rewriting and polishing of rough draft. Preparation of the final bibliography. Writing the final draft.

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Report Structure: Possible Sections

Abstract Contents list (longer reports) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusions (suggestions for further work in some longer reports) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ References Acknowledgements (longer reports) Appendices
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Report Structure: Writing for The Reader of The Report

Before you start writing, think about who the reader will be. Then make sure you write in a manner & with a level of detail appropriate for them Explain to your reader: why & what you did what the outcome was Write concisely whilst explaining clearly. Write in good English [clearly, accurately & ensure your work is reader friendly ]
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Report Structure: the Abstract

This needs to standalone i.e. complete in itself A complete summary of the entire report from aims to conclusions Allows the reader to gain a very brief but complete overview of your project Typically 100-200 words in length One paragraph Highly succinct Is not an introduction Is the final piece you write
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Report Structure: The introduction This gives sets the scene for the report some background to the study explains connections with previous work

explains reason for the work carried out

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Report Structure: The introduction At the end of the introduction explain your aims clearly introduce how you will address these

In longer reports it is helpful [reader- friendly] to explain briefly how the report is structured

[signposting]
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Report Structure: Methods

Now detail the methods you used to address the

aims that you introduced in the introduction.

Depending on your study, the methods may describe:

the construction or choice of apparatus and/or

the development of a mathematical model.
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Report Structure: Results

Presents the results from the experiment or model Do not just include figures and tables, ensure that the text provides: a commentary guiding the reader through the figures & tables references all of these: Figure 3.2 shows how Remember the reader will look at the figures & tables only if directed to do so in the text. The results should include any assessment of uncertainty in your data/model.
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Report Structure: Conclusions

This section is reasonably short & succinct State what you major conclusions are, referring back to your original aims

Discuss what advances you have made

Make suggestions for the future

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Part

Checklist
Does it explain what the report is about succinctly ? Does it explain why the work was done ? Does it outline the entire report, including the findings ? Have you managed to keep the abstract to one paragraph ? Are all the sections covered ? Are the page numbers correct ? Does it contain enough background material and cite the relevant references ? Have you defined all the technical terms used ? Is it clear why you have investigated the problem ? Have you explained why you have chosen the experimental or mathematical approach adopted for your work ? Is there sufficient detail to allow repetition of the work ? Are correct names used for all chemicals used ? Is the sequence of experimental results presented logically ? Are the data presented in the clearest possible way ? Have SI units been used throughout ? Have adequate statistical techniques been used ? Are all figures and tables numbered in the order they appear ? Tables Are all your tables clear ? Do the tables have a caption placed above the table ? Does the caption provide all the necessary information without reference to the main text ? Have you referred, in the main text, to all tables ? Figures Are all your figures clear ? Are all the symbols used explained in a key or in the caption ? Do all maps have a scale bar and north arrows ? Do all figures have a caption placed beneath the figure ? Does the caption provide all the necessary information without reference to the main text ? Have you referred, in the main text, to all figures ? Have you explained the significance of the results ? Have you compared your results with published work ? Are your conclusions justified by the data and statistical techniques used ? Have you managed to suggest what further work is useful ? Have you listed all people who have contributed to the work you have reported ? Do all the references in the main text (and appendices) appear in the list ? Is the list in alphabetical order ? Have you used a consistent format for all references in the list ?

A final check
Go through this check list before submitting your reports!

Title Abstract Contents list Introduction

Methodology Results

Discussion/ Conclusions

Acknowledgements References

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Hard work without talent is a shame, but talent without hard work is a tragedy.
Robert Half

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Pick battles big enough to matter, small enough to win. Jonathan Kozol

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Issues of papers
Paper Title The Abstract The Introduction Related Work The Body Performance Experiments The Conclusions Future Work The Acknowledgements Citations Appendices
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Sections of paper
Experimental process What did I do in a nutshell? What is the problem? How did I solve the problem? What did I find out? Section of Paper Abstract Introduction Materials and Methods Results

What does it mean?

Who helped me out?

Discussion
Acknowledgments (optional)
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Whose work did I refer to?

Literature Cited

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Abstract
First, write your paper. While the abstract will be at the beginning of your paper, it should be the last section that you write. Once you have completed the final draft, use it as a guide for writing your abstract. Function: An abstract summarizes, in one paragraph (usually), the major aspects of the entire paper in sequence
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Abstract (Sequence)
the question(s) you investigated (or purpose), (from Introduction)
state the purpose very clearly in the first or second sentence.

the experimental design and methods used, (from Methods)

clearly express the basic design of the study. Name or briefly describe the basic methodology used without going into excessive detail-be sure to indicate the key techniques used.

the major findings including key quantitative results, or trends (from Results)
report those results which answer the questions you were asking identify trends, relative change or differences, etc.

a brief summary of your interpretations and conclusions. (from Discussion)

clearly state the implications of the answers your results gave you.
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ABSTRACTS AND INTRODUCTIONS COMPARED

At first glance, introduction and the abstract are very similar because they both present
the research problem Objectives briefly reviewing methodology main findings and main conclusions.

Introduction
Should be short, but does not have a word limit; Main purpose is to introduce the research by presenting its context or background. Introductions usually go from general to specific, introducing the research problem and how it will be investigated

Abstract
Has a maximum word limit; Is a summary of the whole research; Main purpose is to summarize the research (particularly the objective and the main finding/conclusion), NOT to introduce the research area.
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Materials and Methods

When writing a lab report, it is often a good idea to begin by writing the Materials and Methods section. Very straightforward Following this section, it is generally recommended to write the Results section, followed by the Discussion, and finally the Introduction. Although this strategy is only a recommendation, and although it may seem illogical at first, many have found this approach very effective for writing scientific papers.
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Writing style
Passive voice has no place in technical writing. It obscures who the actor was, what caused it, and when it happened. Use active voice and simple, clear, direct phrasing. Do not use words like obviously or clearly, as in Obviously, this Taylor series sums to pi. If the point is really obvious, then you are just wasting words by pointing it out. And if the point is not obvious (readers won't be intimately familiar with the subject matter the way the author is), then you are offending readers by insulting their intelligence, and demonstrating your own inability to communicate the intuition.
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Writing style
Prefer singular to plural number. In sequences induce graphs, it is not clear whether the two collections are in one-to-one correspondence, or the set of sequences collectively induces a set of graphs; each sequence induces a graph avoids this confusion. Likewise, in graphs might contain paths, it is unclear whether a given graph might contain multiple paths, or might contain at most one path.

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Figures
A figure should stand on its own, containing all the information that is necessary to understand it. Good captions contain multiple sentences; the caption provides context and explanation. For examples, see magazines such as Scientific American and American Scientist. Never write a caption like The Foobar technique; the caption should also say how the Foobar technique works or what it is good for.
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2. Write simply and accurately

use words that say precisely what you mean use simple and familiar words
conceal - hide conflagration - fire increment - increase laceration wound repudiate refuse
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avoid slang words

slang informal vocabulary of a particular group of people

slang Lims (1980) statement is merely a cop out because he refuses to acknowledge that there are major morphological differences between the two groups.
standard Lims (1980) statement fails to address this issue because he refuses to acknowledge that there are major morphological differences between the two groups.

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Regulate use of which and of

wordy a method which was known to be dangerous Concise a dangerous method wordy characteristics of this species of fish concise characteristics of this fish species

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Be concise
some words that are often used incorrectly adopt to make suitable, to adjust adapt to take as ones own affect to influence effect to cause imply to imply or suggest indirectly infer to draw conclusions from the evidence

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Be concise

WORDY

CONCISE

- say what you

mean clearly A second point is Second, secondly that and avoid embellishment More often than not Usually with unnecessary words or phrase
An additional piece of evidence that helps to support this hypothesis Further evidence supporting this hypothesis

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Be concise

WORDY
In spite of that fact that our knowledge at this point is far from complete At the present time

CONCISE
Although our knowledge is incomplete Now

- say what you

mean clearly and avoid embellishment with unnecessary words or phrase

Owing to that fact that, in light of the fact that, because of the fact that
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Because

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3. Make sentences and paragraphs short

avoid putting too many ideas in a sentence have a topic sentence for a paragraph four to six sentences per paragraph

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4. Use active voice

excessive use of passive verbs (is, was, has, have, had) is deadly read; it results in more words than necessary to say the same thing subject receives the action in the passive voice while it does the action in the active voice
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use passive voice sparingly

Passive

Nearly half the seedlings were eaten by snails. Active Snails ate nearly half the seedlings. Passive Oxygen was consumed by the mouse at a higher rate than Active The mouse consumed oxygen at a higher rate than
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 Punctuation A comma is placed before the conjunctions and and or in a series Ex: The infested tomato plants were sprayed, burned, or buried. Place periods and commas inside the quotation marks;

Ex: Jones (1997) calls Davidsons explanation the most exciting model of this century.
Apostrophe and s (s) or s and apostrophe (s) fpr expression of time and value. Ex: ten pesos worth of vegetables five years cultivation of Bt corn late 1970s but not late 1970s
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Handling of numbers
Spell out all numbers below 11 and use figures for 11 and upward. When the numbers are used with measures (which should be abbreviated), these are all in figures Ex: Ten students, nine days 1 km, 96 t/ha Two numbers coming together Ex: ninety 10-m bamboo poles or ninety 10meter bamboo poles
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Spelling

AMERICAN
traveler hemoglobin rationalize center program honor color

BRITISH
traveller haemoglobin rationalise centre programme honour colour

-With

words having two acceptable spellings, choose one and use it throughout

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Compound words
Some compound words airborne, cutworm, blackberry, childlike, freshwater, glasshouse, hedgerows, homemade, offtype, schoolchildren, threefold Hyphenated words Fraction: three-fourths Technical compound unit: kilowatt-hour Adjective forms: fine-grained wood

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Vague pronoun reference

Antecedent the word to which a pronoun refers to Vague: The peanut sheller is equipped with a blower, but it is inadequate. (Which is inadequate, the sheller or the blower?) Clear: The peanut sheller, which is inadequate, is equipped with a blower. (Place the modifier, which is inadequate, near the noun modified - sheller)

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Comparisons
Add words if necessary to make comparisons Comparisons should be between two or more logical words or concepts. Example: Ambiguous - Average body length in Libellula pulchella is longer than Plathemis lydia. Unambiguous - Average body length in Libellula pulchella is longer than that Plathemis lydia.
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Misplaced modifiers
Faulty - After mating, the sperm are stored in a sac within the damselflys body. Revised - After mating, the female damselfly stores sperm in a sac within her body. Who is actually mating, the sperm or the dragonfly?

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Lumped compound modifiers

Poor - traditional subsistence white potato products practices Revised - traditional subsistence practices for white potato products
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Pairs that are often confused

Among shows relationship of more than two objects, persons, etc. Between shows a relationship of two objects, persons etc. Compare to for unlike things Compare with for like things Results in instead of results to Superior to instead of superior than Regardless without regard to Irregardless a substandard word, unacceptable

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Avoid repetition
Poor - In Kims study in 1997, she failed to account for temperature fluctuations (Kim, 1997).

Revised - Kim (1997) failed to account for temperature fluctuations.

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Verb tense
Past tense is used when reporting your present findings. Present tense is used when discussing the published work of others ( as part of existing theoretical framework) - Example: D. minutus was dominant in the zooplankton of Lake Mibaha uring both years of study. This species is common in the region (Minal and Sy, 1998). Exceptions: Ladera (1990) found that. . . . Table 3 shows that . . . .
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Parallelism
When linking two or more word, phrases or clauses in a sentence, put them in the same grammatical form. Faulty - These two species differ in color, wingspan, and where they typically occur. Parallel - These two species differ in color, wingspan, and habitat.
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Parallelism
Faulty - They introduced new ways of planting corn and control of pests. Parallel - They introduced new ways of planting corn and controlling pests.

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Use of jargon
Jargon - technical language of a specialized group - often long-winded, confusing

Writers of jargon rely on long sentences, big words, and sentences in the passive voice

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Subject-verb agreement
Examples: The size of all territories was (not were) reduced at high population densities. The zygote of the Ascomycetes develops (not develop) into ascospores. The color and shape of the beak are (not is) important taxonomic features (not feature)
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Singular

Plural Data indices ( for numerical expressions), indexes (in books)

Singular and plural forms of some words

datum (rarely used) index

testis equipment medium syllabus phenomenon

testes equipment media, mediums syllabuses, syllabi phenomenons, phenomena

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It is worthwhile to. .
Use a dictionary Consult a form and style guide Discuss your paper with your classmates or your professors

Also do not assume that to really sound like a scientist you must write dry, stilted prose or that complex ideas must be couched in equally complex sentences
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Practice makes perfect

Practice writing and thinking within the recommended form and style Writing is re-writing Proofread Spell-check

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