Chapter 2

2.0 FORCE, MOTION AND ENERGY

Mechanics is the branch of science that deals with the ideas of motion, force and energy and their relations to each other and to matter. The study of mechanics is in two parts : 1. Dynamics 2. Statics

Dynamics - deals with the motion of bodies under the action of forces and the force

Statics - deals with bodies acted upon by forces resulting in no motion.

Motion A body is said to be in motion if it changes its position with respect to a fixed point or with time. A body is said to be at rest if it does not change its position wrt a fixed point in a plane or space. Motion is of two types Rectilinear (Linear) Motion eg. Vehicle moving along a straight road, stone dropped from a height, etc. Rotary (Circular) when every point on the body describes a circle with center on the axis. Eg. Blades of a rotating ceiling fan, hands of a clock etc.

SCALAR QUANTITY AND VECTOR QUANTITY

SCALAR QUANTITY Those quantities, which have only magnitude but no direction for its complete specification E.g.- Mass, time, speed, distance traveled etc. VECTOR QUANTITY Those quantities, which have both magnitude and direction for its complete specification E.g.- Displacement, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force etc

SPEED: The time rate of covering a distance by an object is called speed. It is also scalar quantity and its unit is m/s. The dimensional formula of speed M0LT-1

DISPLACEMENT

It refers to change of position of an object in a specific direction. It is a vector quantity and SI unit of displacement is meters (m). If O is the initial position of a particle and A is its position after few seconds, then OA is the displacement of the particle.

VELOCITY: The time rate of change of displacement of an object is called the velocity of the object. The dimensional formula M0LT-1 Its is expressed as meters per second (m/s)

UNIFORM VELOCITY
The velocity of a particle is said to be uniform if it comers equal distances ion equal intervals of time in the same direction. AVERAGE VELOCITY

It can be defined as the uniform velocity with which the particle should travel to have the same displacement as actually described by the particle in the same interval of time.

ACCELERATION It is defined as the rate of change of velocity. It is a vector quantity. The SI unit of acceleration is m/s2 or cm/s2.

UNIFORM ACCELARTION The acceleration of a body is said to be uniform if its velocity changes by equal amounts in equal intervals of time, however small may be the time interval. Ex : if a body starts from rest and moves with uniform acceleration of 2 m /s2. After 1 second, its velocity is 2 m/s, after 2 seconds, its velocity is 4 m/s and so on.

NEWTONS LAWS OF MOTION Newtons Laws of Motion Newtons observation on motion of bodies was published in the year 1687, in the form of laws, in Latin work Philosophical Naturalis Principia Mathematica. His work laid a strong foundation for principles of Mechanics. He gave the concept of force, which changes the motion of an object or its velocity.

Basic Forces in Mechanics Gravitational Tension Spring force Contact force

Basic Forces in nature 1. 2. 3. Gravitational force Electro magnetic force Nuclear force

1. Gravitational force It is the force exerted by the earth on all unsupported objects. It binds or attracts different masses like motion of satellites and other celestial bodies. It is the weakest force in nature. It is independent of the medium between the two masses. According to Newtons Law of gravitation, the gravitational force between two bodies is directly proportional to the product of the masses of two bodies and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The formation of stars and galaxies, motion of planets round the sun and motion of artificial satellites, all are governed by gravitational force.

2. Electromagnetic force it is the force that includes both electric and magnetic forces. A stationary force produces an electric field. A charge of motion gives rise to a current which in turn produces a magnetic field. between two static charges. It is an attractive force between two unlike charges while a repulsive force between two like charges.

3. Nuclear force which binds particles in the nucleus of an atom. This force acts between proton and proton, proton and neutron and neutron and neutron. Its range is very small and does not go beyond diameter of nucleus. Nuclear force is the strongest of all forces.

Effects of force :

A force can change state of motion of a body. A force can change shape and size of a body. It can rotate a body about a point or an axis.

Newtons Laws of Motion First Law Force and Inertia It states that Every object continues to be in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless it is forced to change that state by an external force impressed on it.

Second Law Momentum Rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to applied force and the change in momentum occurs in the direction of force.
Third Law To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.

Newtons 1st Law : A body can not change its state of motion unless an external force acts on it. It states that every body is not capable of changing the state of motion by itself. Ex. 1. A duster placed on a table continues to be at rest unless some one displaces or lifts it by applying a force. 2. A ball rolling on ground continues to be in motion after traveling a distance or being stopped by a person. It comes to rest because of force of friction which opposes its motion.

Hence according to Newtons Law, Force is that external agency which changes or tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body in straight line. Inertia : Also, it describes law of Inertia, as Inertia is that property possessed by a material by virtue of which the body preserves its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line.

It is the tendency of the body to maintain itself in the same state of motion. Ex : A person standing in a bucket can not lift himself by pulling the bucket. Thus the Newtons first law states that A body in motion continues to move in a straight line with its velocity unchanged unless it is acted upon by an external unbalanced force. This law is applied to bodies at rest as well as in motion.

The first law gave the definitions of force as the entities, which changes state of motion of a body. The force is felt if * a body at rest begins to move * a body in motion begins to move faster or slower direction of motion changes Thus, a body in the absence of a force travels along a straight line with uniform velocity. So it travels equal distances in equal intervals of time.

Examples of Inertia are Consider a coin placed on the plate covering a tumbler. If the plate is suddenly flicked off, the coin falls into the tumbler due to Inertia of rest. Flicking a post card on which a coin is kept. The card flies off when hit, but the coin does not move along with it.

When a moving bus suddenly stops, passenger sitting or standing in the bus are thrown forward. This is due to Inertia of motion. As the bus stops, lower part of body in contact with the bus suddenly comes to rest while the upper part of the body tends to remain its state of motion due to inertia. Hence the passenger moves forward. The mud from the wheels of a moving automobile flies of tangentially due to Inertia of direction.

Newtons second law of motion - Momentum A measurement of force impressed on a body is provided by Newtons second law of motion. For this he introduced the concept of momentum. If a body of mass m is moving with a velocity v then its momentum = m x v. Momentum is the rate of change of motion, which is a vector quantity.

It has the same direction as velocity, since mass is constant, momentum changes when velocity changes as force is applied. If the body is at rest, then its momentum is zero, since v=0. Unit of momentum : Momentum = m x v = kg x m/s Hence in SI units, momentum is expressed in kg m/s.

Momentum is the total quantity of motion possessed by moving body. It is measured by product of mass and velocity of the body. 1. Momentum is a vector quantity and its direction is that of velocity v of the body. 2. SI unit of momentum is kgms-1

A Newton force is that force which when acts on a body of mass one-kilogram produces an acceleration of one meter per second (1 ms-2). When the same force is applied on two bodies of different masses, lighter body acquires a higher velocity than the heavier body. The change is momentum of both the bodies is same.

Newtons second law states that The time rate of change of motion (momentum) of an object is directly proportional to the applied force and the change occurs in the direction of force. This law indicates the relation between force and its effect. Newton showed that motion is simply not the velocity of body, but which involves both its mass and velocity. Eg. A tennis ball is much easier to stop or catch than a cricket ball moving with same speed; because cricket ball has a larger mass and larger quantity of motion.

Derivation of F = ma Let a body of mass m, is moving with a velocity u along a straight line. If a force F is applied on it for t seconds the velocity changes to v. Then Initial momentum = M1 = m u Final momentum = M2 = m v Hence Change in momentum = M2 M1 = mv mu = m(v-u).

The time rate of change of momentum of the object = m(v- u)/t.

From Newtons second law, time rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force. I.e.

Where K is a constant of proportionality. But (v-u) / t is the rate of change of velocity or acceleration a. Therefore,

F=Kxmxa For unit force, k = 1 Hence F = m . a

Thus a unit force is that force which produces unit acceleration in a body of unit mass. Hence force can be measured by rate of change of momentum or by the product of mass and acceleration.

Unit of force : SI unit of force is Newton. 1. Absolute units In C.G.S. system unit of force is Dyne. A dyne is that force which when acting on a body of mass 1 g produces in it an acceleration of 1 cm/s2 In SI and MKS units unit of force is Newton. One Newton is that force which produces an acceleration of 1m/s2 in the body of mass 1 kg. 1 dyne = 1 g x 1 cm/s2 1 Newton = 1 kg x 1 m/ s2 = 1000 g x 100 cm/s2 = 105 g/s2 = 105 dynes

Dyne and Newton are called absolute units of force because they depend only on absolute units of length, mass and time. 2. Gravitational units here acceleration due to gravity is considered with unit mass; The fundamental units like length, force and time are considered. CGS system unit of force is gram-weight or gram. It is defined as force of gravity that would act on a mass of 1 g at sea level at 45 o latitude or it is the force with which a mass of 1 g is attracted toward center of earth.

1 gram weight = 1 gm x g = 1 gm x 980 cm/ s2 = 980 gm cm/ s2 = 980 dynes Hence 1 gm wt = 980 dynes.
SI system unit of force is kilogram weight. It is the force with which a mass of 1 kg is attracted towards center of earth. 1 kg wt = weight of a body of mass 1 kg = 1 kg x g = 1 kg x 9.8 m/ s2 = 9.8 kg m/ s2 = 9.8 N Thus 1 kg.wt = 9.8 N

Gravitational unit = Absolute unit x g As gravitational units depend on g, they vary from place to place.

Impulse and impulsive forces

Sometimes a very large fore act for very short time interval, producing a finite change in momentum of the body. In such a case, neither the force nor the time interval for which the force acts can be measured. But the effect produced by the force i.e. change in momentum of the body can be measured.

Thus change in momentum = Ft = m(v u). Ft is called impulse, the total effect of force. The force itself is called an impulsive force. Impulse is a vector quantity denoted by J.

The SI unit is Newton second (Ns). Its direction is same as that of force.

Ex. 1. A person falling on a hard surface receives more injuries than when he falls on cushion. 2. Automobiles are provided with spring systems or suspensions to minimize the damage to automobiles.

THIRD LAW OF MOTION Newtons second law provided a measurement of force. It relates the force on a body to the acceleration of the body. According to him, external force acting on a body arises due to some other body. I.e. force never occurs singly in nature. They always occur in pairs. This idea was conveyed by Newtons third law.

It states To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.

Ex. 1. When a ball is hit by a bat, during impact the bat exerts a force on that ball (action force) and the ball exerts an equal and opposite force on the bat (reaction force). 2. When we walk on a ground we push the ground backwards with our feet. The ground offers force in the opposite direction which makes us to walk forward. 3 When a ball is thrown against a wall, the ball bounces back due to the reaction of wall. 4 Recoiling of a gun.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF LINEAR MOMENTUM

It is derived by the Newtons second and third laws of motion, which is an important law in mechanics. It states that, the total momentum of an isolated system of interacting particles is conserved. i.e. in the absence of external force, the momentum of the system remains constant.

Consider an isolated system (system which is free from the influence of external forces) consisting of two bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 respectively. Let two bodies be moving along a straight line in the same direction with velocities u1 and u2 (u1 > u2). The two bodies will collide after some time.

During collision, the two bodies will be in contact for a short interval of time t seconds. After the collision, let v1 and v2 be the velocities of A and B respectively along the same direction as before.
Before Collision Momentum of body A = m1 u1 Momentum of body A = m2 u2 Hence initial momentum of the system = m1 u1+

m2 u2

After Collision

Momentum of body A = m1 v1
Momentum of body A = m2 v2

Hence initial momentum of the system = m1 v1+

m2 v2 Change in momentum of body A due to collision = m1 v1- m1 u1

Change in momentum of body B due to collision = m2 v2- m2 u2 During collision, the body A exerts a force FBA on the body B. According to Newtons third law, the body B exerts a force FAB on the body, which is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to FBA.
i.e. FAB = - FBA Impulse acting on A = (FAB) t = m1 v1- m1 u1 Impulse acting on B = (FBA) t = m2 v2- m2 u2

Because time of contact is the same for both A and B and impulse = change in momentum

Thus, FAB = - FBA =(FAB) t = - (FAB) t

m1 v1- m1 u1= -( m2 v2- m2 u2) i.e. m1 v1+ m1 v2 = m1 u1+ m2 u2 Thus, total final momentum of the system is equal to the total initial momentum or total momentum after collision is equal to total momentum before collision.

Ex. of Law of conservation of momentum When a bullet is fired from a gun, bullet moves forward towards the target while the gun recoils (moves backwards) Motion of a rocket and that of a jet plane.

Work, Power and Energy According to Newtons Laws of Motion, a force must be applied to set a body into motion. For this, work is done by the force. Work it is said to be done when the point of application of a force moves. It is measured by the product of force and component of displacement along the direction of force. Let a constant force F acting on a body along AB, displace the point of application from A to C.

Both force and displacement are vectors but work done is scalar. If = 90, cos = 0. Hence W = 0. Thus, no work is done when displacement is at right angles to the force. Ex. A person carrying a load and walking on a horizontal surface does no work. An object in uniform circular motion experiences a centripetal force. No work is done since at each instance, force and displacement are at right angles to each other.

Unit of work

SI unit of work is Newton meter (Nm) or Joule (J). If force F = 1 N, displacement S = 1m, = 0, Then, W = F S cos 1 x 1 x 1 = 1 Nm or 1 J
So, work done is said to be 1 Nm or 1 J if the point application of a constant force of 1 N is displaced through 1m in the direction of force.

Unit of Power it is joule per second, or watt. 1W=1J/s Power is said to be 1W if 1 J of work is done in 1 second. The power consumed by an electric appliance is measured in watt or kilowatt.

1 KW = 1000 W
Power of an automobile or a motor is measured in terms of horse power (HP). 1 HP = 746 W

Energy

It is the capacity to do work. It is a scalar quantity. Its unit is same as work. Energy can be of two types 1. Potential energy (Ep) 2. Kinetic Energy

Potential Energy It is the energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or configuration. Eg. Electrical, elastic, chemical or nuclear energies. The most common form of potential energy is gravitational energy. Since earth attracts every body, work is required to lift it to a higher level. When a brick is carried to the top of a building, work done on it (weight of brick x vertical distance) it indicates energy gained. By virtue of its position at the top of building, the brick possesses more ability to do work. Its potential energy is increased.

Expression for gravitational potential energy Consider an object of mass m on earths surface. Let it be lifted from A to B through a vertical height of h. Force acting on it is its own weight. I.e. F = mg, Where g is acceleration due to gravity at that place. So, work done in displacing the object from A to B Against force = W = FS = mg x h = mgh Hence increase in potential energy is Ep = mgh If W is in newtons, m is in kilograms, h is in meters, then Ep is in joules. If w is in dynes, m is in grams, h is in centimeters, then Ep is in ergs.

2. Kinetic Energy (Ek) It is the energy possessed by a body virtue of its motion and is measured in terms of work done by a body before it comes to rest. Eg. A car in motion or a revolving wheel possess kinetic energy.

Expression for Kinetic energy Consider a body of mass m moving with velocity v. Let a constant force F oppose motion of the body. Let the object come to rest in traveling a distance S. Work done by the object against the force F is W = -FS. The negative sign indicates that force and displacement are oppositely directed. SO, W = - FS But F = ma So, W = -m a S From the equation v2 = u2+ 2 a s, if v = 0 and u = v

Hence, 0 = v2 + 2 a S a S = -1/2 v2

or W = - m (-1/2) v2

or W = m v2
Thus Kinetic energy Ek of an object of mass m moving with a velocity v is Ek = m v2

Speed : It is rate of change of position of a particle. It is a scalar quantity. Unit is m/s.

Velocity : It is the time rate of change of position of a particle in a particular direction. It is a vector quantity. Unit is m/s. Distance traveled by a body in uniform motion in time t is S = vt

Kinematic equations of motion for a particular moving with uniform acceleration along a straight line