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CNS
Consists of:
Brain.
Spinal cord.
Receives input from
sensory neurons.
Directs activity of
motor neurons.
Association neurons
maintain
homeostasis in the
internal
environment.
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Embryonic Development
Cerebrum
Cerebrum (continued)
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Cerebral Cortex
Characterized by numerous convolutions.
Elevated folds: gyri.
Depressed groves: sulci.
Frontal lobe:
Anterior portion of each cerebral hemisphere.
Precentral gyri:
Contains upper motor neurons.
Involved in motor control.
Body regions with the greatest number of
motor innervation are represented by
largest areas of motor cortex.
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Parietal lobe:
Primary area responsible for perception
of somatesthetic sensation.
Body regions with highest densities of
receptors are represented by largest
areas of sensory cortex.
Temporal lobe:
Contain auditory centers that receive
sensory fibers from cochlea.
Interpretation and association of
auditory and visual information.
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Occipital Lobe:
Primary area responsible for vision
and coordination of eye movements.
Insula:
Implicated in memory encoding.
Integration of sensory information
with visceral responses.
Coordinated cardiovascular response
to stress.
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
Measures
synaptic
potentials
produced at cell
bodies and
dendrites.
Create electrical
currents.
Used clinically do
diagnose epilepsy
and brain death.
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EEG Patterns
Alpha:
Recorded from parietal and occipital regions.
Person is awake, relaxed, with eyes closed.
10-12 cycles/sec.
Beta:
Strongest from frontal lobes near precentral gyrus.
Produced by visual stimuli and mental activity.
Evoked activity.
13-25 cycles/sec.
Theta:
Emitted from temporal and occipital lobes.
Common in newborn.
Adult indicates severe emotional stress.
5-8 cycles/sec.
Delta:
Emitted in a general pattern.
Common during sleep and awake infant.
In awake adult indicate brain damage.
1-5 cycles/sec.
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Cerebral Lateralization
Cerebral dominance:
Specialization of one
hemisphere.
Left hemisphere:
More adept in
language and
analytical abilities.
Damage:
Severe speech
problems.
Right hemisphere:
Most adept at
visuospatial tasks.
Damage:
Difficulty finding way
around house.
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Language
Broca’s area:
Involves articulation of speech.
Wernicke’s area:
Involves language comprehension.
somatesthetic information.
Damage produces aphasias.
Arcuate fasciculus:
To speak intelligibly, words originating in Wernicke’s
area must be sent to Broca’s area.
Broca’s area sends fibers to the motor cortex which
directly controls the musculature of speech.
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hippocampus to
hypothalamus, which
projects to the thalamus
which sends fibers back
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Memory
Short-term:
Memory of recent events.
Medial temporal lobe:
Consolidates short term into long term
memory.
Hippocampus is critical component
of memory.
Acquisition of new information,
facts and events requires both the
medial temporal lobe and
hippocampus.
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Long-Term Memory
Consolidation of short-term memory into long-
term memory.
Requires activation of genes, leading to protein
synthesis and formation of new synaptic connections.
Altered postsynaptic growth of dendritic spines in area of
contact.
Cerebral cortex stores factual information:
Visual memories lateralized to left hemisphere.
Visuospatial information lateralized to right
hemisphere.
Prefrontal lobes:
Involved in performing exact mathematical
calculations.
Complex, problem-solving and planning activities.
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Long-Term Potentiation
Type of synaptic learning.
Synapses that are 1st stimulated at high frequency
will subsequently exhibit increased excitability.
In hippocampus, glutamate is NT.
Requires activation of the NMDA receptors for
glutamate.
Glutamate and glycine or D-serine binding and
partial depolarization are required for opening of
channels for Ca2+ and Na+.
May also involve presynaptic changes:
Binding of glutamate to NMDA receptors and
simultaneous depolarization, open receptor channels
for Ca2+.
Ca2+ causes long-term potentiation in postsynaptic
neuron, release of NO from postsynaptic neuron.
NO acts as a retrograde messenger, causing release of
NT.
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Hypothalamus
Contains neural centers for hunger,
thirst, and body temperature.
Contributes to the regulation of sleep,
wakefulness, emotions, sexual arousal,
anger, fear, pain, and pleasure.
Stimulates hormonal release from
anterior pituitary.
Produces ADH and oxytocin.
Coordinates sympathetic and
parasympathetic reflexes.
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Pituitary Gland
Posterior pituitary:
Stores and releases ADH (vasopressin) and
oxytocin.
Hypothalamus produces releasing and
inhibiting hormones that are transported
to anterior pituitary.
Regulate secretions of anterior hormones.
Anterior pituitary:
Regulates secretion of hormones of other
endocrine glands.
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Midbrain
Contains:
Corpora quadrigemina:
Superior colliculi:
Involved in visual reflexes.
Inferior colliculi:
Relay centers for auditory information.
Cerebral peduncles:
Composed of ascending and descending fiber
tracts.
Substantia nigra:
Required for motor coordination.
Red nucleus:
Maintains connections with cerebrum and
cerebellum.
Involved in motor coordination.
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Hindbrain
Metencephalon:
Pons:
Surface fibers connect to
cerebellum, and deeper fibers
are part of motor and sensory
tracts.
Contains several nuclei
associated with cranial nerves
V, VI, VII.
Contains the apneustic and
pneumotaxic respiratory
centerss.
Cerebellum:
Receives input from
proprioceptors.
Participates in coordination of
movement.
Necessary for motor learning,
coordinating different joints
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Hindbrain (continued)
Vasomotor center:
Controls autonomic innervation of blood vessels.
Cardiac control center:
Regulates autonomic nerve control of heart.
Regulates respiration with the pons.
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Reticular Formation
Reticular Formation:
Complex network of nuclei and nerve fibers
(RAS).
Non specific arousal of cerebral cortex to
incoming sensory information.
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Convey sensory
information from
cutaneous
receptors,
proprioceptors
and visceral
receptors to
cerebral cortex.
Sensory fiber
tract decussation
may occur in
medulla or spinal
cord.
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Reflex Arc
Unconscious motor
response to a
sensory stimulus.
Stimulation of
sensory receptors
evokes APs that are
conducted into spinal
cord.
Synapses with
association neuron,
which synapses with
somatic motor
neuron.
Conducts impulses to
muscle and
stimulates a reflex
contraction.
Brain is not directly