Mitotic and Meiotic Cell Division

Chromosomes

Chromosome Structure
Chromosomes

contained in the cell nucleus composed of chromatin

60 % histone proteins, 35% DNA, 5% RNA when cell is not dividing chromosomes in uncondensed form = euchromatin When cells are dividing, the chromosomes are in condensed form = heterochromatin

Each chromosome contains 100s-1000s of genes Genes code for one protein or RNA molecules (only 10% of DNA) Genes also contain regulatory portions

Packaging of DNA into Chromosomes

Karyotype
Karyotype- is a picture of all the chromosomes within cells of an organism. Chromosomes are usually arranged as homologous pairs.
homologous pairs (homologues) pairs that are similar in size, shape and position of centromeres Number of chromosomes vary from 2 to several 100s humans 46 chromosomes per cell (23 homologous pairs) diploid- cell that contain two sets of chromosomes (homologous pairs of chromosomes) (2n)

haploid- cells that contain one set of chromosomes (only one of each type of chromosome) (n)
chromosome mutations affect karyotype

Examples of Human Karyotypes

The Cell Cycle

The Cell Cycle

The Cell Cycle includes the sequence of activities required for growth and cell division cells reach a certain size where they must either stop growing or divide In cells capable of dividing:
The cell cycle is the period from the beginning of one division to the beginning of the next.

The Cell Cycle

NOTE CHANGES IN CHROMOSOME STRUCTURE THROUGHOUT CYCLE

Mitosis
Significance of Mitosis Mitosis is a process of nuclear division that produces identical daughter nuclei
It is usually accompanied by cytokinesis which usually forms two identical (clone) daughter cells
Cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm forming new cells mitosis without cytokinesis yields multinucleated cells

occurs in somatic cells body cells Significance of mitosis

Growth formation and extension of tissues Replacement of damaged cells Asexual reproduction parent splits, buds or fragments etc. to produce two identical daughter cells Maintains genetic stability

Stages of Mitotic cell cycle

Interphase
cells spend most of their life span in interphase (hours to years) this is the time when cell is metabolically active Cells that will divide go through G1, S and G2 phases
G1 phase (First gap phase)- normal growth/life of cell S phase (Synthesis phase) DNA replication occurs G2 phase (Second gap phase) cell prepares for division
Cells not preparing for division go through G0 and may remain there indefinitely (skeletal muscle, neurons etc.). (G0 is a specialized resting state)

S phase highlighted
During this S phase DNA replication occurs
Chromosomes are duplicated/copied

This ensures that the new cells have the same number of identical chromosomes
Before replication each chromosome is a single chromosome structure After replication each chromosome is a double chromosome structure (two sister chromatids joined at centromeres)

Cells in Interphase

Stages of Mitosis
Mitosis may be divided into four (4) stages
PROPHASE

ANAPHASE METAPHASE

TELOPHASE

Prophase (Stage 1of Mitosis)

Main features of Prophase
1. chromatin begins to condense into heterochromatin

2.

chromosomes coil becoming shorter and thicker (they are now visible under light microscope) a. Remember each chromosome has been replicated; each consists of two chromatids (termed sister chromatids) bound at their centromeres b. Centromeres have kinetochores ((protein complexes) to which microtubules (spindle fibres) will bind
Microtubules form between poles and begin to form the mitotic spindle

3.

4.
5. 6.

nuclear envelope disappears in most cell types

nucleolus disappears by end of prophase some microtubules are attached to the kinetochores located at the centromeres of sister chromatids

In animal cells centrioles are in the middle of each MTOC (microtubule organizing centre) and are believed to assist in the organization of the MTOC
Asters are clusters of microtubules that migrate to opposite sides establishing poles

Prophase

Kinetochores and Mitotic Spindle further explained

kinetochore are protein complexes that assemble on each centromere this allows microtubules to bind

A mitotic spindle is an assembly of microtubules responsible for separation and movement of chromosomes Microtubules (spindle fibres) attach to kinetochores within the centromeres

At each pole is a MTOC (microtubule organizing centre ) that organizes the microtubules Microtubules radiate from the microtubule-organizing centre. MTOC may also be refered to also as centrosome
in animal cells a pair of centrioles is located in centre of MTOC (centrosome) no centrioles in plants, a dense centrosome with no special structures is present

Metaphase (Stage 2 of mitosis)

Metaphase is when duplicated chromosomes line up along the equatorial plane
Microtubules extend from poles
Some attached to chromatids Some extend to equatorial line

Photos of chromosomes usually taken during metaphase for karyotype analysis

Anaphase (stage 3 of mitosis)

Anaphase is the third stage of mitosis

Chromatids separate as centromeres divide/split Sister chromatids move towards opposite pole Each chromatid now called a chromosome Movement due to microtubule shortening Chromosome arms trail behind (V shape)
Animal cell Plant cell

Telophase (stage four of mitosis)

Telophase is the fourth and final stage of mitosis
Two separate nuclei form nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes Chromosomes decondense (return to the conditions similar to interphase) Spindle fibres (microtubules) disappear Nucleoli reappears
Plant cell Animal cell

The Complete Process of Mitosis

INTERPHASE

Telophase

Prophase

MITOSIS

Anaphase

Metaphase

Cytokinesis
Cytoplasm divides to yield two daughter cells
Usually overlaps with telophase In animal cells, begins with a cleavage furrow that gradually deepens and separates the cytoplasm into two cells In plants, cell plate forms at equatorial region that eventually becomes cell membrane and cell wall New cells are identical to parent cell, but smaller organelles appear to be apportioned at random, so each cell has at least one of each

Cytokinesis
Cytoplasm divides to yield two daughter cells
Usually overlaps with telophase In animal cells, begins with a cleavage furrow that gradually deepens and separates the cytoplasm into two cells In plants, cell plate forms at equatorial region that eventually becomes cell membrane and cell wall New cells are identical to parent cell, but smaller organelles appear to be apportioned at random, so each cell has at least one of each

Control of the Cell Cycle

A. The cell cycle is controlled by an internal genetic programme interacting with external signals
B. Under optimal conditions timing is constant for the cell type
1. Eukaryotic cells typically divide less frequently than prokaryotes 2. Under optimal conditions timing is typically constant for the cell type 3. Protein kinases are involved in control of mitosis 4. See 8th Edition text pages 222-223 for more information

Cancer and Mitosis

An illness characterized by abnormal and uncontrolled cell division.

Normal cells divide in a highly controlled way. Mechanisms regulate how often and how many times they may divide.
Cancer may arise if a cells control mechanism for cell division break down and cells divide via mitosis uncontrolled.

It is thought to start specifically when changes occur in the genes the control cell division
Oncogenes - genes that promote cell proliferation and stop cell death (apoptosis) (when mutated cell proliferation is not stopped) Tumour suppressor genes These genes normally limit the development and/or growth of tumors; when a tumor suppressor gene is mutated, it may fail to prevent a cancer from growing DNA mismatch repair genes These genes maintain integrity of the genome and the fidelity of information transfer from one generation of cells to the next

Normal vs. Cancer Cells

Image from http://visualsonline.cancer.gov/preview.cfm?imageid=2512&fileformat=jpg

Image from: http://www.biotech100.com/biotechnology_encyclopedia/180p x-Normal_cancer_cell_division_from_NIH.png

Tumours
Cancer begins with tumour (neoplasm) Development
Tumour a mass or swelling of undifferentiated cells produced by abnormal cell division

Benign tumours- mass remains intact, seldom is life threatening (eg. warts, ovarian cysts, brain tumours) Malignant tumours- cells spread into surrounding tissue, life threatening, no longer respond to normal control mechanisms = cancer Metastasis- the spread of cancer that leads to secondary growths.

Carcinogens- agents that cause cancer

Common carcinogens: ionising radiation, certain chemicals, virus infection, hereditary predisposition)
Image from: http://www.patient.co.uk/pilsinl/158.gif

Asexual vs. Sexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction
involves splitting, budding, or fragmentation of the parent The offspring formed by asexual reproduction are clones of the parent Asexual reproduction is typically rapid and efficient Mitosis is the basis of sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction
involves the union of gametes to form a zygote The offspring of sexual reproduction are not identical to the parents More complex, and time consuming process

Meiosis is the basis of sexual reproduction

Meiosis
Significance of Meiosis process of nuclear division that produces haploid (n) daughter nuclei Also called reduction division
reduces chromosome number (2n) to half (n) involves two consecutive meiotic divisions results in the formation of gametes usually accompanied by cytokinesis separates the cytoplasm forming new cells

Significance
Essential part of sexual reproduction Provides genetic variation Offspring are genetically different
due to crossing over (Prophase I) Random distribution (independent assortment during Metaphase I and II)

increases species chance of survival

Stages of Meiotic cell cycle

Interphase
Meiosis I (separates homologous chromosomes)
Prophase I; Metaphase I; Anaphase I; Telophase I

Meiosis II (separates sister chromatids)

Prophase II; Metaphase II; Anaphase II; Telophase II

Stages of Meiotic cell cycle

Interphase
Similar to cells that go through mitosis, cells that will go through meiosis spend most of there life in interphase prior to dividing
Interphase is similar to that before mitosis Interphase only occurs once (before Meiosis I) Chromosomes duplicated during S phase (produces double stranded chromosomes)

Meiosis I

Prophase I (first stage of Meiosis l)

Chromatin condenses to become visible chromosomes Synapsis occurs - Homologues line up lengthwise adjacent to each other forming tetrads (also called bivalents). Crossing over may occur- exchange of genetic material between nonsister chromatids within the bivalents Enzymes break and rejoin DNA molecules allowing a sawp of genetic informaiton between nonsister

In late Prophase I homologues are held together at chiasmata (sing. chiasma)

Chiasma occur at the sites of crossing over (X shape configuration)

mitotic spindles form- spindle fibres attach to centromeres of each homologue

nuclear envelope and nucleolus disappear

Prophase I

Key Terms related to Prophase 1

Tetrad Synapsis Crossing over Chiasma

Mechanism of crossing-over gives rise to recombinant (nonparental) genotypes and phenotypes for linked genes.

Metaphase I
Bivalents (tetrads) align on the equatorial plane Alignment is random which will lead to independent assortment (random distribution to poles)

Anaphase I
Tetrads (associated homologous pairs) separate and chromosomes migrate to poles One homologue of each pair goes to each pole

Telophase I
Chromosomes generally decondense Nuclear envelope may reorganize Cytokinesis may or may not occur Two new nuclei form each containing haploid number (n) of chromosomes; each chromosome is in duplicated form (consist of two sister chromatids)

Meiosis II
Meiosis II is like Mitosis but with the number of chromosomes
Similarly in Meiosis II chromatids separate

Stages: Prophase II, Metaphase II, Anaphase II, Telophase II. Both nuclei that are produced at the end of meiosis I go through meiosis II producing a total of 4 new haploid nuclei at the end of meiosis Each division is usually accompanied by Cytokinesis Cytokinesis at the end produces 4 new haploid cells Each new cell is genetically different

Overview of Meiosis I

Overview of Meiosis II

Meiosis

Meiosis in Humans
In humans meiosis produces the haploid gametes (the sex cells we call sperm & egg)
In males the process produces sperm and is called spermatogenesis In females the process produces eggs(ova) and is called oogenesis The processes both involve meiosis, but differ significantly See 8th edition text pages 229-230 for more details

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

The events of mitosis and meiosis lead to contrasting outcomes
A.
-

Mitosis is a single division and results in two genetically identical daughter cells
Homologous chromosomes do not experience crossing over

B.
-

Meiosis is two sets of divisional processes, and results in four genetically different cells
Due to synapsis and independentseparation of homologues and then sister chromatids, a great deal of genetic diversity results

Mitosis vs. Meiosis (contd)

Can you compare and contrast the stages of mitosis and meiosis? As you review the material complete the table below.

Mitosis
Events during: Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Cytokinesis
Products: Diploid/haploid at beginning? Diploid/haploid at end?

Meiosis I

Meiosis II

Specific Objectives
explain the importance of mitosis in growth, repair and asexual reproduction; explain the need for the production of genetically identical cells and fine control of replication; explain how uncontrolled cell division can result in cancer and identify factors that can increase the chances of cancerous growth; *describe, with the aid of diagrams, the behaviour of chromosomes during the mitotic cell cycle and the associated behaviour of the nuclear envelope, cell membrane, centrioles and spindle (names of the main stages are expected); explain the meanings of the terms haploid and diploid and the need for a reduction division prior to fertilisation in sexual reproduction; use the knowledge gained in this section in new situations or to solve related problems.