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Introduction
Teaching listening and speaking skills has become vital to learning a second language. Listening was thought of as a mastery of skills, such as identifying key words and recognizing reduced words. It then became bottom-up and top-down, followed by prior knowledge and schema. The current view is that a listener is an active participant that uses facilitation, monitoring, and evaluating strategies.
Speaking was
Memorizing, repeating, and drill-based Communicative language changed grammarbased syllabi to communication syllabi. Fluency became popular.
Bottom-Up Processing
Using the incoming input as the basis for understanding the message. Comprehension is the process of decoding. Teaching Bottom-Up:
Retain input while it is being processed Recognizing word and clause divisions Recognize key words Recognize key transitions in a discourse Recognize grammatical relations between key elements in sentences Use stress and intonation to identify word and sentence function (Richards, 5).
Top-down Processing
Use of background knowledge in understanding the meaning of a message. It could be previous knowledge of a topic, situational/contextual, or schema. Teaching Top-down:
Use key words to construct schema Infer the setting of the text Infer the role of the participants and their goals Infer cause and effect Infer unstated details of a situation Anticipate questions related to the topic or situation (Richards, 9).
Listening as Acquisition
Listeners extract meaning from the message. Use both bottom-up and top-down processing. Language of utterances is temporary. Teaching listening strategies can make more effective listeners. Some tasks to improve acquisition are truefalse, picture identification, and sequencing tasks.
Conversational Routines
Use of fixed expressions
It doesnt matter. I see what you mean. Just looking, thanks.
Styles of Speaking
What is appropriate for the context? Whacha up to?/What are you up to? Differences between formal and informal speech.
Functions of Speaking
3 functions of speaking
Talk as Interaction: primarily a social function. Focus is on the speaker, not the message. Talk as Transaction: focus on what is said or done. The message is #1! (Problem-solving activities, asking for directions). Talk as Performance: public speaking, form of monolog, mimics written language.
Resources
Richards, Jack C. Teaching Listening and Speaking: From Theory to Practice.