Electrical and Magnetic Properties of Materials

ARMIDA

Electrical
Properties

 Electrical properties are the physical conditions that allow an

electrical charge to move from atom to atom in a specific material. These properties differ greatly between the three major types of materials: solids, liquids and gases. Electric properties of solid materials like metal are high, while electric charges do not move as easily in water and have an even more difficult time with gases. In each element, there are exceptions: some solids are poor conductors, and some gases can become excellent conductors.

Solids and electricity often are a perfect combination for

conductivity. The electrical properties of cooper, steel, and other metals provide the optimum opportunity because of the physical closeness of atoms. When electrons can pass easily between atoms, this promotes electrical conductivity. Solids like silver, copper and aluminum are popular with electrical work because very little energy is lost when electricity travels through these metals.

 Not all solids, however, possess the strong electrical

properties of metal. Items like glass, wood and plastic are considered insulators because the tightly packed electrons do not share electrical charges easily. When an electrical current is introduced to these materials, nothing happens. These solids are still valued in electrical work, but often to protect humans against electrical charges

OHMS LAW
The relationship between current, voltage, and

resistance is given by Ohms law.

This law states that the amount of current passing

through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across the conductor and inversely proportional to the resistance of the conductor

OHMS LAW
Ohms law can be expressed as an equation:

V = IR V - is the difference in volts between two locations (called the potential difference) volts (J/C) I- is the amount of current in amperes that is flowing between these two points amperes (C/s) R - is the resistance in ohms of the conductor between the two locations of interest [ ohms (V/A) ]

OHMS LAW
V = I R in most cases V = DV = V2 V1

OHMs LAW
Electricity It is well known that one of the subatomic particles of an atom is the electron. Atoms can and usually do have a number of electrons circling its nucleus. The electrons carry a negative electrostatic charge and under certain conditions can move from atom to atom. The direction of movement between atoms is random unless a force causes the electrons to move in one direction. This directional movement of electrons due to some imbalance of force is what is known as electricity. Amperage The flow of electrons is measured in units called amperes or amps for short. An amp is the amount of electrical current that exists when a number of electrons, having one coulomb of charge, move past a given point in one second. A coulomb is the charge carried by 6.25 x 1018 electrons or 6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons. Electromotive Force The force that causes the electrons to move in an electrical circuit is called the electromotive force, or EMF. Sometimes it is convenient to think of EMF as electrical pressure. In other words, it is the force that makes electrons move in a certain direction within a conductor. There are many sources of EMF, the most common being batteries and electrical generators.

OHMs LAW
The Volt

The unit of measure for EMF is the volt. One volt is defined as the electrostatic difference between two points when one joule of energy is used to move one coulomb of charge from one point to the other. A joule is the amount of energy that is being consumed when one watt of power works for one second. This is also known as a watt-second. For our purposes, just accept the fact that one joule of energy is a very, very small amount of energy. For example, a typical 60-watt light bulb consumes about 60 joules of energy each second it is on. Resistance Resistance is the opposition of a body or substance to the flow of electrical current through it, resulting in a change of electrical energy into heat, light, or other forms of energy. The amount of resistance depends on the type of material. Materials with low resistance are good conductors of electricity. Materials with high resistance are good insulators.

OHMS LAW
Electrical Resistivity

Electrical resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity. It is in the opposition of a body or substance to the flow of electrical current through it, resulting in a change of electrical energy into heat, light, or other forms of energy. The amount of resistance depends on the type of material. Materials with low resistivity are good conductors of electricity and materials with high resistivity are good insulators

OHMS LAW
The value of R is influenced by

specimen configuration, and for many materials is independent of current. The resistivity is independent of specimen geometry but related to R through the expression

l - is the distance between the two points at which the voltage is measured A - is the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the direction of the current

OHMS LAW
Schematic representation of the

apparatus used to measure electrical resistivity

The units for (resistivity) are

ohm-meters ( -m)
I ammeter

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
ELECTRICAL conductivity is the ability of a material to

carry the flow of an electric current (a flow of electrons).

Imagine that you attach the two ends of a battery to a

bar of iron and a galvanometer. (A galvanometer is an instrument for measuring the flow of electric current.) When this connection is made, the galvanometer shows that electric current is flowing through the iron bar. The iron bar can be said to be a conductor of electric current.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Replacing the iron bar in this system with other materials

produces different galvanometer readings. Other metals also conduct an electric current, but to different extents. If a bar of silver or aluminium is used, the galvanometer shows a greater flow of electrical current than with the iron bar.

Silver and aluminum are better conductors of electricity

than is iron. If a lead bar is inserted, the galvanometer shows a lower reading than with iron. Lead is a poorer conductor of electricity than are silver, aluminum, or iron.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Many materials can be substituted for the original

iron bar that will produce a zero reading on the galvanometer.

These materials do not permit the flow of electric

current at all. They are said to be nonconductors, or insulators. Wood, paper, and most plastics are common examples of insulators

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Many materials can be substituted for the original

iron bar that will produce a zero reading on the galvanometer. These materials do not permit the flow of electric current at all. They are said to be nonconductors, or insulators. Wood, paper, and most plastics are common examples of insulators

Electrical Resistance
Another way of describing the conductivity of a material is

through resistance. Resistance can be defined as the extent to which a material prevents the flow of electricity. Silver, aluminum, iron and other metals have a low resistance (and a high conductivity). Wood, paper, and most plastics have a high resistance (and a low conductivity). ohm (abbreviation: ). The ohm was named for German physicist Georg Simon Ohm (17891854), who first expressed the mathematical laws of electrical conductance and resistance in detail. Interestingly enough, the unit of electrical conductance is called the mho (ohm written backwards). This choice of units clearly illustrates the reciprocal (opposite) relationship between electrical resistance and conductivity.

The unit of measurement for electrical resistance is called the

How conductance takes place

Electrical conductivity occurs because of the ease with

which electrons can be removed from atoms. All substances consist of atoms. In turn, all atoms consist of two main parts: a positively charged nucleus and one or more negatively charged electrons. An atom of iron, for example, consists of a nucleus with 26 positive charges and 26 negatively charged electrons. The electrons in an atom are not all held with equal strength. Electrons close to the nucleus are strongly attracted by the positive charge of the nucleus and are removed from the atom only with great difficulty. Electrons farthest from the nucleus are held only loosely and are removed quite easily.

How conductance takes place

A block of iron can be thought of as a huge collection of iron atoms.

Most of the electrons in these atoms are held tightly by the iron nuclei. But a few electrons are held looselyso loosely that they act as if they don't even belong to atoms at all. Scientists sometimes refer to this condition as a cloud of electrons. Normally these "free" electrons have no place to go. They just spin around randomly among the iron atoms. That situation changes, however, when a battery (or other source of electric current) is attached to the iron block. Electrons flow out of one end of the battery and into the other. At the electron-rich end of the battery, electrons flow into the piece of iron, pushing iron electrons ahead of them. Since all electrons have the same negative charge, they repel each other. Iron electrons are pushed away from the electron-rich end of the battery towards the electron-poor end. In other words, an electric current flows through the iron.

ENERGY BAND STRUCTURES IN SOLIDS

In an isolated atom electrons occupy well defined energy

states When atoms come together to form a solid, their valence electrons interact with each other and with nuclei due to Coulomb forces. In addition, two specific quantum mechanical effects happen. First, by Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, constraining the electrons to a small volume raises their energy, this is called promotion. The second effect, due to the Pauli exclusion principle, limits the number of electrons that can have the same energy. As a result of these effects, the valence electrons of atoms form wide electron energy bands when they form a solid. The bands are separated by gaps, where electrons cannot exist.

ENERGY BAND STRUCTURES IN SOLIDS

Schematic plot of

electron energy versus inter atomic separation for an aggregate of 12 atoms upon close approach, each of the 1s and 2s atomic states splits to form an electron energy band consisting of 12 states.

Energy Band Structures and Conductivity

The highest filled state at 0

K Fermi Energy (EF) The two highest energy bands are: Valence band the highest band where the electrons are present at 0 K Conduction band - a partially filled or empty energy band where the electrons can increase their energies by going to higher energy levels within the band when an electric field is applied

Energy Band Structures and Conductivity

Metals In metals (conductors), highest occupied band is partially filled or bands overlap. Conduction occurs by promoting electrons into conducting states, that starts right above the Fermi level. The conducting states are separated from the valence band by an infinitesimal amount. Energy provided by an electric field is sufficient to excite many electrons into conducting states.
Ssemiconductors and insulators In semiconductors and insulators, the valence band is filled, no more electrons can be added (Pauli's principle). Electrical conduction requires that electrons be able to gain energy in an electric field. To become free, electrons must be promoted (excited) across the band gap. The excitation energy can be provided by heat or light.

Insulators: wide band gap (> 2 eV)

Semiconductors:
narrow band gap (< 2 eV)

Energy Band Structures and Conductivity

METAL SEMI CONDUTORS AND INSULATORS

Energy Band Structures and Conductivity

Energy Band Structures and Conductivity(semiconductors and insulators) In semiconductors and insulators, electrons have to jump across the band gap into conduction band to find conducting states above Ef The energy needed for the jump may come from heat, or from irradiation at sufficiently small wavelength (photo excitation). The difference between semiconductors and insulators is that in semiconductors electrons can reach the conduction band at ordinary temperatures, where in insulators they cannot. The probability that an electron reaches the conduction band is about exp(-Eg/2kT) where Eg is the band gap. If this probability is < 10-24 one would not find a single electron in the conduction band in a solid of 1 cm3. This requires Eg/2kT > 55. At room temperature, 2kT =0.05 eV Eg > 2.8 eV corresponds to an insulator.

An electron promoted into the conduction band leaves a hole (positive charge) in the valence band, that can also participate in conduction. Holes exist in metals as well, but are more important in semiconductors and insulators. Energy Band Structures and Bonding (metals, semiconductors, insulators) Relation to atomic bonding: Insulators valence electrons are tightly bound to (or shared with) the individual atoms strongest ionic (partially covalent) bonding. Semiconductors - mostly covalent bonding somewhat weaker bonding. Metals valence electrons form an electron gas that are not bound to any particular ion.

ELECTRICAL RESISTIVITY OF METALS

The resistivity is defined by

scattering events due to the imperfections and thermal vibrations. Total resistivity tot can be described by the Matthiessen rule: total=thermal+impurity +deformation where thermal - from thermal vibrations, impurity - from impurities, deformation - from deformation-induced defects

Electrical Resistivity of Metals

Conductivity / Resistivity of Metals Influence of temperature: Resistivity rises linearly with temperature (increasing thermal vibrations and density of vacancies) T = o + aT Influence of impurities: Impurities that form solid solution i = Aci(1-ci) ci is impurity concentration, A composition independent constant Two-phase alloy ( and phases) rule-of-mixtures: i = V + V

Influence of plastic

deformation: In general, presence of any imperfections (crystal defects) increases resistivity -- grain boundaries -- dislocations -- impurity atoms -- vacancies Normally, the influence of plastic deformation on electrical resistivity is weaker than the influence of tempera ture and impurities

Materials of Choice for Metal Conductors

One of the best material for

electrical conduction (low resistivity) is silver, but its use is restricted due to the high cost Most widely used conductor is copper: inexpensive, abundant, high , but rather soft cannot be used in applications where mechanical strength is important. Solid solution alloying and cold working in prove strength but decrease conductivity. Precipitation hardening is preferred, e.g. Cu-Be alloy When weight is important one uses aluminum, which is half as good as Cu and more resistant to corrosion. Heating elements require low (high R), and resistance to high temperature oxidation: nickelchromium alloy

Semiconductivity
Some materials cannot be classified as either conductors

or insulators. Semiconductors, for example, are materials that conduct an electric current but do so very poorly. Semiconductors were not well understood until the midtwentieth century, when a series of remarkable discoveries revolutionized the field of electrical conductivity. These discoveries have made possible a virtually limitless variety of electronic devices, ranging from miniature radios and handheld calculators to massive solar power arrays and orbiting telescopes. .

Superconductivity
Superconductivity is a property that appears only at very low

temperatures, usually close to absolute zero (273C). At such temperatures, certain materials lose all resistance to electric current; they become perfect conductors. Once an electric current is initiated in such materials, it continues to flow without diminishing and can go on essentially forever. The discovery of superconductivity holds enormous potential for the development of electric appliances. In such appliances, a large fraction of the electrical energy supplied to the device is lost in overcoming electrical resistance within the device. That lost energy shows up as waste heat. If the same appliance were made of a superconducting material, no energy would be lost because there would be no resistance to overcome. The appliance would become, at least in principle, 100 percent efficient

Extrinsic semiconductors
n-type extrinsic semiconductors

p-type extrinsic semiconductors

The hole created in donor state is far from the valence band and is immobile. Conduction occurs mainly by the donated electrons (thus n-type). ~ n|e|e ~ ND |e|e (for extrinsic ntype semiconductors)

Excess holes are produced by substitutional impurities that have fewer valence electrons per atom than the matrix. A bond with the neighbors is incomplete and can be viewed as a hole weakly bound to the impurity atom. Elements in columns III of the periodic table (B, Al, Ga) are donors for semiconductors in the IV column, Si and Ge. Impurities of this type are called acceptors, NA = NBoron ~p The energy state that corresponds to the hole (acceptor state) is close to the top of the valence band. An electron may easily hop from the valence band to complete the bond leaving a hole behind. Conduction occurs mainly by the holes (thus p-type). ~ p|e|p ~ NA |e|p

Carrier mobility
Ionic Materials In ionic materials, the band gap is large and only very few electrons can be promoted to the valence band by thermal fluctuations. Cation and anion diffusion can be directed by the electric field and can contribute to the total conductivity: total = electronic + ionic High temperatures produce more Frenkel and Schottky defects which result in higher ionic conductivity. Polymers Polymers are typically good insulators but can be made to conduct by doping. A few polymers have very high electrical conductivity - about one quarter that of copper, or about twice that of copper per unit weight.

CAPACITANCE
Capacitance is typified by a parallel plate

arrangement and is defined in terms of charge storage:

where Q = magnitude of charge stored on each plate. V = voltage applied to the plates.

Dielectric Materials
The dielectric constant of vacuum

increase significantly. C = r o A / L with r = 81 for water, 20 for acetone,12 for silicon, 3 for ice, etc. A dielectric material is an insulator in which electric dipoles can be induced by the electric field (or permanent

is 1 and is close to 1 for air and many other gases. But when a piece of a dielectric material is placed between the two plates in capacitor the capacitance can

dipoles can exist even without

electric field), that is where positive and negative charge are separated on an atomic or molecular level In the capacitor surface charge density (also called dielectric displacement) is D = Q/A = r oE = oE + P Polarization is responsible for the increase in charge density above that for vacuum

Dielectric Materials
Mechanisms of polarization electronic (induced) polarization: Applied electric field displaces negative electron clouds with respect to positive nucleus. Occurs in all materials. ionic (induced) polarization: In ionic materials, applied electric field displaces cations and anions in opposite directions molecular (orientation) polarization: Some materials possess permanent electric dipoles (e.g. H2O). In absence of electric field, dipoles are randomly oriented. Applying electric field aligns these dipoles, causing net (large) dipole moment.
Ptotal = Pe + Pi + Po

Dielectric strength
Very high electric fields (>108 V/m) can excite

electrons to the conduction band and accelerate them to such high energies that they can, in turn, free other electrons, in an avalanche process (or electrical discharge). The field necessary to start the avalanche process is called dielectric strength or breakdown strength.

Piezoelectricity
In some ceramic

materials, application of external forces produces an electric (polarization) field and vice-versa Applications of piezoelectric materials is based on conversion of mechanical strain into electricity (microphones, strain gauges, sonar detectors)

Magnetic Properties

The study of atoms, electrons, neutrons, and protons is so complex that throughout history scientists have developed several models of the atom.

From the early Greek concept of the atom, about 2400 years ago, to today's modern atomic model, scientists have built on and modified existing models, as new information was discovered. There are still concepts on which scientists do not fully agree. In an attempt to simplify the concept and describe how some materials become magnetized, we are using a simplification of the Niels Bohr Model of the atom.

Niels Bohr was a Danish scientist and made his model in 1913. In his model Bohr depicted electrons spinning and orbiting the nucleus of an atom. In our exercise, the electron appears to orbit in the same path around the nucleus, but electrons do not really orbit in the same path. They change their path with each revolution and are commonly described as existing in clouds that surround the nucleus of an atom. Because electrons move so quickly, it is impossible to see where they are at a specific moment in time.

What is the origin of magnetism?

The origin of magnetism is a very complicated concept. In

fact, there are some details about magnetism on the atomic scale that scientists still do not fully agree on. To begin to understand where magnetism originates and why some materials can be magnetized while others cannot, requires a fair amount of quantum theory. level to another as it relates to the structure and behavior of atoms. However, explaining quantum theory is well beyond the scope of this material, so this subject will be reserved for high school and college chemistry and physics classes. Nevertheless, the basic scientific principles of magnetism can be explained if a few generalizations and simplifications are made.

Quantum theory is the study of the jumps from one energy

What is a magnetic field and how is it created?

A magnetic field describes a volume of space where there is a change

in energy. Later, you will see a simple way to detect a magnetic field with a compass. As Ampere suggested, a magnetic field is produced whenever an electrical charge is in motion. The spinning and orbiting of the nucleus of an atom produces a magnetic field as does electrical current flowing through a wire. The direction of the spin and orbit determine the direction of the magnetic field. The strength of this field is called the magnetic moment.

What is a magnetic field and how is it created?

The motion of an electric charge producing a

magnetic field is an essential concept in understanding magnetism. The magnetic moment of an atom can be the result of the electron's spin, which is the electron orbital motion and a change in the orbital motion of the electrons caused by an applied magnetic field.

What are paired electrons?

All the electrons do produce a magnetic field as they spin and

orbit the nucleus; however, in some atoms, two electrons spinning and orbiting in opposite directions pair up and the net magnetic moment of the atom is zero. Remember that the direction of spin and orbit of the electron determines the direction of the magnetic field. Electron pairing occurs commonly in the atoms of most materials. In the experiment you observed a helium atom showing two electrons spinning and orbiting around the protons and neutrons of the nucleus. The two electrons are paired, meaning that they spin and orbit in opposite directions. Since the magnetic fields produced by the motion of the electrons are in opposite directions, they add up to zero. The overall magnetic field strength of atoms with all paired electrons is zero.

What are paired electrons

In general, materials that have all paired electrons in the

atoms and thus have no net magnetic moment are called diamagnetic materials; yet, there are some exceptions. When placed in the magnetic field of a magnet, diamagnetic materials will produce a slight magnetic field that opposes the main magnetic field. Both ends of a bar magnet will repel a diamagnetic material. If a diamagnetic material is placed in a strong external magnetic field, the magnetic field strength inside the material will be less than the magnetic field strength in the air surrounding the material.

What are paired electrons

The slight decrease in the field strength is the result

of realignment in the orbit motion of the electrons. Diamagnetic materials include zinc, gold, mercury, and bismuth. Another key concept in magnetism is that diamagnetic materials will oppose an applied magnetic field. Both ends of a magnet will repel diamagnetic materials.

Are all materials that have unpaired electrons magnetic?

Most materials with one or more unpaired electrons

are at least slightly magnetic. Materials with a small attraction to a magnet are called paramagnetic materials, and those with a strong attraction are called ferromagnetic materials. Aluminum, platinum, and manganese are some paramagnetic materials. Iron, cobalt, and nickel are examples of ferromagnetic materials.

MAGNETIC DOMAIN
A magnetic domain is region in which the magnetic

fields of atoms are grouped together and aligned. In the experiment below, the magnetic domains are indicated by the arrows in the metal material. You can think of magnetic domains as miniature magnets within a material. In an unmagnetized object, like the initial piece of metal in our experiment, all the magnetic domains are pointing in different directions. But, when the metal became magnetized, which is what happens when it is rubbed with a strong magnet, all like magnetic poles lined up and pointed in the same direction. .

MAGNETIC DOMAIN
The metal became a magnet. It would quickly

become unmagnetized when its magnetic domains returned to a random order. The metal in our experiment is a soft ferromagnetic material, which means that it is easily magnetized but may not retain its magnetism very long

3. DIAMAGNETISM AND PARAMAGNETISM

Diamagnetism is a very

weak form of magnetism that is nonpermanent and persists only while an external field is being applied

The magnitude of the

induced magnetic moment is extremely small, and in a direction opposite to that of the applied field

The atomic dipole configuration for a diamagnetic material with and without a magnetic field. In the absence of an external field, no dipoles exist; in the presence of a field, dipoles are induced that are aligned opposite to the field direction.

3. Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism

Paramagnetism is a form of

magnetism whereby the paramagnetic material is only attracted when in the presence of an externally applied magnetic field In a paramagnet, the magnetic moments tend to be randomly orientated due to thermal fluctuations when there is no magnetic field. In an applied magnetic field these moments start to align parallel to the field such that the magnetisation of the material is proportional to the applied field.

Schematic showing the

magnetic dipole moments randomly aligned in a paramagnetic sample

4. Ferromagnetism
FERROMAGNETISM
A ferromagnetic substance is one

Schematic showing the magnetic

that, like iron, retains a magnetic moment even when the external magnetic field is reduced to zero. This effect is a result of a strong interaction between the magnetic moments of the individual atoms or electrons in the magnetic substance that causes them to line up parallel to one another. In ordinary circumstances these ferromagnetic materials are divided into regions called domains; in each domain, the atomic moments are aligned parallel to one another

dipole moments aligned parallel in a ferromagnetic material

The most important class of magnetic materials is the ferromagnetism: iron, nickel, cobalt and manganese, or their compounds (and a few more exotic ones as well).

5. Antoferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism

Some ceramics also Schematic showing

exhibit a permanent magnetization, termed ferrimagnetism. Ferrimagnetic substances have at least two different kinds of atomic magnetic moments, which are oriented antiparallel to one another (e.g. Fe3O4 )

adjacent magnetic moments of different magnitudes aligned antiparallel.

5. Antoferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism

5. Antoferromagnetism and Ferrimagnetism

This phenomenon of magnetic

moment coupling between adjacent atoms or ions occurs in materials other than those that are ferromagnetic. In one such group, this coupling results in an antiparallel alignment; the alignment of the spin moments of neighboring atoms or ions in exactly opposite directions is termed antiferromagnetism. Manganese oxide (MnO) is one material that displays this behavior.

Schematic showing adjacent magnetic dipole moments with equal magnitude aligned anti-parallel in an antiferromagnetic material. This is only one of many possible antiferromagnetic arrangements of magnetic moments.

6 THE INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON MAGNETIC BEHAVIOR

With increasing temperature, the saturation

magnetization diminishes gradually and then abruptly drops to zero at Curie Temperature, Tc.

Hysteresis
Hysteresis is what allows us

to make permanent magnets. To make permanent magnets, we take our material, create whatever shape we want, and then place the material inside of a very strong magnetic field. The domains inside the material align with the magnetic field, and when we remove the field, the domains stay aligned, and we now have a new magnet. While these are magnets are not truly permanent, some magnets domains will not return to their original state for much longer than a single lifetime.

8. Magnetic Anisotropy
The magnetic hysteresis

curves will have different shapes depending on various factors: (1) whether the specimen is a single crystal or polycrystalline (2) if polycrystalline, any preferred orientation of the grains (3) the presence of pores or second-phase particles (4) other factors such as temperature and, if a mechanical stress is applied, the stress state.

Magnetic Anisotropy
the magnetizing field is applied in [100], [110], and [111] crystallographic directions This dependence of magnetic behavior on crystallographic orientation is termed magnetic anisotropy. For each of these materials there is one crystallographic direction in which magnetization is easiest is termed a direction of easy magnetization a hard crystallographic direction is that direction for which saturation magnetization is most difficult

9. SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Soft

magnetic materials are those materials that are easily magnetised and demagnetised. Soft magnetic materials are: 1.small coercivities 2.used for electric motors 3.example: commercial iron 99.95 Fe

Schematic magnetization

curves for soft and hard magnetic materials.

9. SOFT MAGNETIC MATERIALS

10. HARD MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Hard magnetic materials are

utilized in permanent magnets, which must have a high resistance to demagnetization. In terms of hysteresis behavior, a hard magnetic material has a high remanence, coercivity, and saturation flux density, as well as a low initial permeability, and high hysteresis energy losses Hard magnetic materials: large coercivities used for permanent magnets add particles/voids to inhibit domain wall motion example: tungsten steel - Hc = 5900 amp-turn/m)

High-Energy Hard Magnetic Materials

High-Energy Hard Magnetic Materials

NeodymiumIronBoron Magnets

Permanent magnetic materials having energy products in excess of about 80 kJ/m3 (10 MGOe) are considered to be of the high-energy type.

SamariumCobalt Magnets
SmCo5- is a member of a group of alloys that are combinations of cobalt or iron anda light rare earth element -a number of these alloys exhibit highenergy, hard magnetic behavior - Energy products of these SmCo5 materials are considerably higher than the conventional hard magnetic materials ; in addition, they have relatively large coercivities

Coercivities and energy products of these materials rival those of the samariumco Very high strength Relatively low cost balt alloys Two different processing techniques are available for the fabrication of Nd2Fe14B magnets: powder metallurgy (sintering) and rapid solidification (melt spinning). The powder metallurgical approach is similar to that used for the SmCo5 materials. For rapid solidification, the alloy, in molten form, is quenched very rapidly such that either an amorphous or very fine grained and thin solid ribbon is produced.

11 .MAGNETIC STORAGE
Transference to and retrieval

from the tape or disk is accomplished by means of an inductive readwrite head, which consists basically of a wire coil wound around a magnetic material core into which a gap is cut write or record data by applying a
magnetic field that aligns domains in small regions of the recording medium read or retrieve data from medium by sensing changes in magnetization

11 .MAGNETIC STORAGE
There are two principal types of

magnetic mediaparticulate and thin film. The thin-film storage technology is relatively new and provides higher storage capacities at lower costs. It is employed mainly on rigid disk drives and consists of a multilayered structure. A magnetic thin-film layer is the actual storage component.This film is normally either a CoPtCr or CoCrTa alloy, with a thickness of between 10 and 50 nm. A substrate layer below and upon which the thin film resides is pure chromium or a chromium alloy.

The storage density of thin films

is greater than for particulate media because the packing efficiency of thin-film domains is greater than for the acicular particles; particles will always be separated with void space in between.

12 .SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Superconductivity is basically

an electrical phenomenon Materials for which the resistivity, at a very low temperature, abruptly plunges from a finite value to one that is virtually zero and remains there upon further cooling. Materials thatdisplay this latter behavior are called superconductors, and the temperature at which they attain superconductivity is called the critical temperature TC

Temperature dependence of

the electrical resistivity for normally conducting and superconducting materials in the vicinity of 0 K.

Mercur

Copper (normal)

12. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Superconducting materials

may be divided into two classifications designated as type I and type II: Type I materials, while in the superconducting state, are completely diamagnetic; that is, all of an applied magnetic field will be excluded from the body of material, a phenomenon known as the Meissner effect. Several metallic elements including aluminum, lead, tin, and mercury belong to the type I group

Type II superconductors are

completely diamagnetic at low applied fields, and field exclusion is total. However, the transition from the superconducting state to the normal state is gradual and occurs between lower critical and upper critical fields, designated HC1 and HC 2

TC = critical temperature - if T > TC not superconducting JC = critical current density - if J > JC not superconducting HC = critical magnetic field - if H > HC not superconducting

12. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

12. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

12. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

12. SUPERCONDUCTIVITY
Advances in Superconductivity Research in superconductive materials was stagnant for many years. -Everyone assumed TC,max was about 23 K -Many theories said it was impossible to increase TC beyond this value 1987- new materials were discovered with TC > 30 K -ceramics of form Ba1-x Kx BiO3-y -Started enormous race
+Y Ba2Cu3O7-x TC = 90 K +Tl2Ba2Ca2Cu3Ox TC = 122 K +difficult to make since oxidation state is very important
The major problem is that these ceramic materials are inherently

brittle.