CHAPTER 4:

ENERGY STORAGE ELEMENTS

BEX 17003
2
ANNOUNCEMENT!
1. TEST 1 BEX 17003
DATE: 18 October March 2012
TIME: 5:30-6:30 pm
VENUE: DK2



Capacitors
4

5
Introduction
Capacitor and inductor do not dissipate
energy.
Reason: Capacitors and inductors are
called storage elements.
Contrast: Resistors dissipate energy.
Types of passive elements (absorb and
store energy).
Circuit analysis techniques: Equally
applicable

6
Concepts
Capacitors: passive elements designed to store
energy in its electric field.
Used extensively in electronics, communications,
computers, etc:
Tuning circuits for radio receivers
Dynamic memory elements in computer system.
In general a capacitor is constructed by two
plates separated by an insulating (dielectric)
material
7
Cont
8
Cont
Definition: A capacitor consist of two conducting
plates separated by an insulator or dielectric.
For practical applications:
Plates aluminum, foil
Dielectric air, ceramic, paper, mica

9
Types of capacitors
Small capacitors used in electronic equipment
10
Cont
Capacitors used for power factor correction on electrical power system
11
-
+
+
+
-
-
-
-
Working Principles of a Capacitor
Consider the following figure.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
V
+q
-q
12
Cont
When a voltage source, V is connected to
the capacitor
the source deposits a positive charge (q) on
one plate and a negative charge (-q) on the
other
the capacitor is said to store the energy
The amount of charge stored = q (directly
proportional to the applied voltage)
13
Cont
So,
C = constant of proportionality called
capacitance of the capacitor
Unit = Farad (F)
Capacitance: is the ratio of the charge on
one plate of a capacitor to the voltage
difference between the two plates
Measured in Farad (F)
1 Farad = 1 Coulomb/Volt
Cv q =
14
Cont
Capacitance:
Ratio of the charge, q per plate to the applied
voltage, V
It does not depend on q or V.
But depends on the physical dimensions of the
capacitor.



15
Cont
For a parallel-plate capacitor, the capacitance is
given by:



Where:
A = surface area of each plate (m
2
)
d = distance between the plates (m)
= permittivity of the dielectric material (F/m)
d
A
C=
Metal
plates,
each with
area A
Lead
Dielectric with
permittivity
Lead
d
16
Cont
Note:
= permittivity of dielectric material

o
= permittivity of a vacuum (8.85 X 10
-12
F/m)

R
= /
o
= relative permittivity = no unit
17
Cont
Three factors determine the values of the
capacitance:
The surface area of the plates
Area , capacitance
The spacing between the plates
Spacing , capacitance
The permittivity of the material
Permittivity , capacitance
18
Cont
Values: typically in picofarad (pF) to microfarad
(F).
Types: described by the dielectric material they
are made of and whether fixed or variable type.
+

i
V
C
+

i
V
C
Relationship of the
Capacitor
20
Current voltage relationship
Basically, q = CV
To obtain the C-V relationship, take the
derivative of both sides
dt
dv
C i
dt
dq
i since ,
dt
dV
C
dt
dq
dt
dCV
dt
dq
=
= =
=
21
Cont
This is the current-voltage relationship for a
capacitor.
dt
dv
C i =
22
Cont
The relationship is graphically shown below,
Slope = C
i
dt
dv
23
Voltage current relationship
It can be obtained by integrating both sides.
}
} }
}
=
=
=
=
=
idt
C
1
V
idt
C
1
dv
idt
C
1
dv
C
i
dt
dv
dt
dv
C i
24
Cont
C
) q(t
dt i
C
1
V(t)
current past the on depends voltage capacitor that shown *
t time at capacitor the across voltage the
C
) q(t
) V(t where
) V(t dt i
C
1
V(t)
o
t
t
o
o
o
o
t
t
o
o
+ =
= =
+ =
}
}
25
Cont
The instantaneous power delivered
dt
dv
CV
dt
dv
VC Vi P = = =
26
Cont
The energy stored in the capacitor
dt
dv
CV
dt
dw
P = =
27
Cont
(t) CV
2
1
w
thus , - t at uncharged was
capacitor the because 0 ) v(- that note we ,
2
V
C w
Vdv C w
dt
dv
CV w
dt
dt
dv
CV dw
dt
dv
CV
dt
dw
2
-
2
t
-
t
-
=
=
= =
=
=
=
=
=

}
}
} }
t
t
28
Cont
2C
q
W
C
q
V ,
2
qV
w
CV q (t), CV
2
1
w(t)
2
2
=
= =
= =
29
Important Properties of a Capacitor
When the voltage across a capacitor is not
changing with time (eg. DC voltage), the current
through the capacitor is zero.
A capacitor is open circuit to DC




However, if a battery (DC voltage) is connected
across a capacitor, the capacitor charges
dt
dv
C i =
30
Cont
Voltage across a capacitor
V
t
V
t
(a) allowed
(b) An abrupt change is not possible
31
Cont
The voltage on the capacitor must be
continuous.
The voltage on a capacitor cannot change
abruptly.
Because,
dt
dv
C i =
32
Cont
Ideal capacitor:
Does not dissipate energy
Takes power from the circuit when storing
energy in its field
And returns previously stored energy when
delivering power to the circuit.
33
Cont
A real, non ideal capacitor has a parallel-
model leakage resistance.
The leakage resistance may be as high as
100 M and can be neglected for most
practical applications.
Assume an ideal capacitors in this
lectures.
34
Example
(a) Calculate the charge stored on a 3-pF
capacitor with 20V across it.
(b) Find the energy stored in the capacitor.
35
Solution
600pJ 400 10 3
2
1
Cv
2
1
W
is stored energy The (b)
60pC 20 10 3 q
Cv q Since (a)
12 2
12
= = =
= =
=

36
Example
it. through current the Calculate
V 6000t cos 10 v(t)
is capacitor F - 5 a across voltage The
=

37
Solution
A 6000t sin -0.3 6000t sin 0 0 - i(t)
6000t) cos (10
dt
d
0
dt
dv
C i(t)
is current the , definition By
6
6
= =
= =

1 6000 1 5
1 5
38
Example
zero. is voltage capacitor initial that the Assume
mA. 6e i(t) is it rough current th the
if capacitor F - 2 a across voltage the Determine
3000t
=

39
Solution
)V e (1 e
3000
10 3
v
10 dt 6e
10 2
1
v
0, v(0) and v(0) idt
C
1
v
Since
3000t
t
0
3000t
3
t
0
3 3000t
6
t
0

=
= + =
}
}
40
Example
figure. following the in shown is voltage whose
F - 200 a through current the Determine
50
-50
0 1 2 3 4
t
V(t)
41
Solution
otherwise
4 t 3
3 t 1
1 t 0
0
50t 200
50t 100
50t
v(t)
as ally mathematic described be can waveform voltage The
< <
< <
< <

+

=
50
-50
0 1 2 3 4
t
V(t)
42
Cont
otherwise
4 t 3
3 t 1
1 t 0
0
10mA
10mA
10mA
otherwise
4 t 3
3 t 1
1 t 0
0
50
50
50
10 200 i(t)
obtain to v of derivative the can take we 2000 C and
dt
dv
C i
Since
6 -
< <
< <
< <

=
< <
< <
< <

=
= =
10
-10
0 1 2 3 4
t
i(mA)
43
Parallel Capacitors




i
1
i
2
i
3
i
N
i
+

V
1
C
2
C
3
C
N
C
44
Cont


Applying KCL,

N 3 2 1 eq
N 3 2 1
N 3 2 1
C ... C C C C
where,
dt
dv
C ...
dt
dv
C
dt
dv
C
dt
dv
C i
dt
dv
C i
i ... i i i i
+ + + + =
+ + + + =
=
+ + + + =
i
1
i
2
i
3
i
N
i
+

V
1
C
2
C
3
C
N
C
45
Cont
The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-
connected capacitors is the sum of the
individual capacitances.
Capacitors in parallel combine, same
manner as resistors in series.
46
Series Capacitors
i
V
1
C
2
C
3
C
N
C
+
1
V +
2
V +
3
V +
N
V
47
Cont


Applying KVL
i
V
1
C
2
C
3
C
N
C
+
1
V +
2
V +
3
V +
N
V
N 3 2 1 eq
t
t
o N
N
t
t
o 3
3
t
t
o 2
2
t
t
o 1
1
t
t
o k
k
k
N 3 2 1
C
1
...
C
1
C
1
C
1
C
1
where,
) (t V i(t)
C
1
... ) (t V i(t)
C
1
) (t V i(t)
C
1
) (t V i(t)
C
1
V
Therefore, . ) (t V i(t)
C
1
V But
V ... V V V V
o o o o
o
+ + + + =
+ + + + + + + + =
+ =
+ + + + =
} } } }
}
48
Example
What is the total capacitance of four
30-mF capacitors connected in:
(a) parallel (b) series
49
Solution
50
Example
Determine the equivalent capacitance for
the following circuit.
51
Solution
52
Example
Calculate the equivalent capacitance for
the circuit in the following figure. All
capacitances are in mF.
53
Solution
54
Cont
Inductors
56
Concepts
Passive element designed to store energy
in its magnetic field.
Numerous applications:
Power supplies, transformers, electric motors
Any conductor of electric current has
inductive properties and may be regarded
as an inductor.
57
Cont
To enhance the inductive effect: a
practical inductor is usually formed into a
cylindrical coil with many turns of
conducting wire

58
Working Principles
If current is allowed to pass through an inductor,
voltage across the inductor is directly
proportional to the time rate of change of the
current.
Henry) (Unit inductance
allity proportion of constant
= =
=
=
L
L
dt
di
L v
59
Cont
Inductance is the property whereby an
inductor exhibits opposition to the change
of current flowing through it, measured in
henrys (H).
Inductance, depends on its physical
dimension and construction.
60
Cont
Formulas for calculating inductance are derived
from EMT.
For the inductor (solenoid):
core the of ty permeabili
area sectional - cross
length
turns of number
=
=
=
=
=

A
l
N
where
l
A N
L
,
2
61
Cont
From the formula, inductance can be
increased by;
increasing the number of turns of coils
using material with higher permeabilility as the
core
increasing the cross-sectional area
reducing the length of the coil
62
Cont
Various types of inductors.
63
Cont
A coil of wire forms an inductor.
When there is current through it, a three
dimensional electromagnetic field created.
Surrounding the coil in all directions

64
Cont
Typical inductors have inductance values
ranging from a few microhenrys (H) in
communication systems to ten of henrys
(H) in power systems.
Inductors may be fixed or variable.
The core may be made of iron, steel,
plastic or air.
65
Cont
The circuit symbols for inductors, following the
passive sign convention.
i
+
L

V
66
Voltage-current Relationship for an Inductor
dt
di
L v =
Slope = L
v
dt
di
67
Current-Voltage Relationship for an Inductor
Basically,
}
}
} }
+ =
=
=
=
=
=
t
t
t i dt t v
L
i
vdt
L
i
vdt
L
di
vdt
L
di
Ldi vdt
dt
di
L v
0
) ( ) (
1
1
1
1
0
inductor. the in current no
was there when past the in time a be must there
because , reasonable is idea The
and
for current total
0 ) (
. 0 ) (
) (
0 0
=
=
< < =
i
i
t t t i
where
68
Energy Storage in an Inductor
2
0
2 2 2
2
1
) (
2
1
) (
2
1
2
0
0
0 0
Li
t Li t Li i
L
idi L
dt
dt
di
Li pdt pdt w
i
dt
di
L vi p
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
t
=
= = = =
= = =
|
.
|

\
|
= =
}
} } }
69
Important Properties of the Inductor




Voltage across an inductor is zero when the
current is constant.
Inductor acts like a short-circuit to DC
dt
di
L V =
70
Cont
The current through an inductor cannot
change instantaneously.
The ideal inductor does not dissipate
energy. The inductor takes power from
the circuit when it storing energy and
delivers power to the circuit when
returning previously stored energy.
In practical, nonideal inductor has a
significant resistive component.
71
Series Inductors
+
1
V +
2
V +
3
V +
N
V
1
L
2
L
3
L
N
L
+

V
i
N eq
eq
N
k
k
N
N
L L L L L
dt
di
L
dt
di
L V
dt
di
L
dt
di
L
dt
di
L
dt
di
L V
dt
di
L V V V V V V
+ + + + =
= =
+ + + + =
= + + + + =

=
...
...
; ...
3 2 1
1
3 2 1
3 2 1
KVL, on Based
72
Parallel Inductors
1
L
2
L
3
L
N
L
N
i
3
i
2
i
1
i
i
+

V
N eq
t
t
eq
t
t
N
N
t
t
t
t
t
t
N
L L L L L
t i Vdt
L
i
t i Vdt
L
t i Vdt
L
t i Vdt
L
t i Vdt
L
i
t i Vdt
L
i i i i i i
1
...
1 1 1 1
) (
1
) (
1
... ) (
1
) (
1
) (
1
) (
1
; ...
3 2 1
0
0 0 3
3
0 2
2
0 1
1
0 3 2 1
0
0 0 0 0
+ + + + =
+ =
+ + + + + + + + =
+ = + + + + =
}
} } } }
}
KCL, on Based
73
Example
The current through a 0.1-H inductor is
.
Find the voltage across the inductor and the energy
stored.
A te t i
t 5
10 ) (

=
74
Solution
J e t e t Li w
V t e e t e te
dt
d
v
H L
dt
di
L v
t t
t t t t
10 2 10 2 2
5 5 5 5
5 100 ) 1 . 0 (
2
1
2
1
) 5 1 ( ) 5 ( ) 10 ( 1 . 0
1 . 0


= = =
= + = =
= =
stored energy The
and
Since
75
Example
Find the current through a 5-H inductor if the
voltage across it is




Also find the energy stored within 0<t<5s.
0
0
, 0
, 30
) (
2
<
>

=
t
t
t
t v
76
Solution
A t
t
dt t i
H L ) t i dt t v
L
i
t
t
t
3
3
0
2
0
2
3
6 0 30
5
1
5 ( ) (
1
0
= = + =
= + =
}
}
and
Since
77
Cont
kJ
t
t pdt w
t t t vi p
25 . 156
6
60 60
60 ) 2 )( 30 (
5
0
6
5
0
5
5 3 2
= = = =
= = =
} }
then, is stored energy the and
power The
78
Example
The current through a 10-mH inductor is
6e
-t/2
A. Find the voltage and the power
at t = 3 s.
79
Solution
80
Example
The current through a 0.25-mH inductor is
12 cos 2t A. Determine the terminal
voltage and the power.
81
Solution
82
Example
Obtain Leq for the inductive circuit below.
All inductances are in mH.
83
Solution
84
Example
Find Leq at the terminals of the following
circuit.
85
Solution
86
Example
For the following circuit, i
o
(0) = 2 A.
Determine i
o
(t) and v
o
(t) for t > 0.
87
Solution
88
DC Steady State
Review
* A capacitor is an open circuit to dc
* An inductor acts like a short circuit to
dc.
The steps to finding the steady state
solution.
1. Replace capacitances with open circuits.
2. Replace inductances with short circuits.
3. Solve the remaining circuit.

89
Example
Consider the following circuit. Under DC
conditions, find:
(a) i, v
c
, and i
L
(b) The energy stored in the capacitor and inductor
1 5
4
2H
F 1
12V
+

C
V
L
i
i
90
Solution
(a) Under DC conditions, we replace the capacitor
with an open circuit and the inductor with a short
circuit. Then
1 5
4
12V
+

C
V
L
i
i
V i v
v
A i i
C
C
L
10 5
5
2
5 1
12
= =
=
=
+
= =
resistor the across voltage
91
Cont
(b) The energy in the capacitor




The energy in the inductor
J Cv w
C C
50 ) 10 )( 1 (
2
1
2
1
2
2
= = =
J Li w
L L
4 ) 2 )( 2 (
2
1
2
1
2
2
= = =
92
Important characteristics of the basic elements
( )
0
0
1
t dt i
C
t
t
v v +
}
=
dt
di
L v =
dt
d
C
v
( ) ( )
0
0
1
t i dt t
L
i
t
t
+
}
= v
R
2
v
2
2
1
v C w =
2
2
1
i L w =
2 1
R R +
2 1
2 1
C C
C C
+
2 1
L L +
2 1
2 1
R R
R R
+
2 1
C C +
2 1
2 1
L L
L L
+
i =
p = i
2
R
=
R
eq
=
C
eq
=
L
eq
=
R
eq
=
C
eq
=
L
eq
=
Relation Resistor Capacitor Inductor
-i = iR
i- i = / R
p or w
Series
Parallel
At dc Same Open circuit Short circuit