OSMOREGULATION AND

EXCRETION
OSMOREGULATION AND DISPOSAL OF
METABOLIC WASTES

Read pg 1011
SUBTOPICS
Metabolic waste products: Ammonia,
Urea, Uric acid

Osmoregulation and excretion in

Vertebrates
Two processes help maintain
fluid and osmotic
concentration in blood
Osmoregulation and Excretion

Electrolyte/ salt
homeostasis Disposal of
metabolic wastes
What is excretion?
> The process of removal waste products of
metabolism from the body/ body metabolic
waste

What are the waste products?

> Nitrogenous waste, eg. Urea, ammonia
> Waste products of metabolism, eg. CO2, bile
pigments (breakdown of RBC by the liver into
intestine)
> Toxic substances

Excretion NOT Secretion!!

 ALL
LIVER
Hemoglob CELLS
Wastes
in
produce
Breakdown breakdow
d
of nucleic n Cellular
acids respiration
Deamination
of amino
acids
Uric
acid Bile Wate Carbon
Waste Urea pigments r dioxide
s

Organs of
excretion
KIDNEY SKIN LUNG
DIGESTIV
E SYSTEM S
Exhaled air
Excretio Urin Feces containing
Swea
n e t water vapor
and carbon
Fig. 47-6b, p. 1016
Osmoregulation?
> Is maintaining the correct balance between the
water and solutes in the body
> Concentration of water and salts

What are the solutes?

> glucose, Na+, K+, etc

Which system of the body is

responsible of osmoregulation?
> Urinary system
> two kidneys, two ureters, the bladder and the
uretha
Important aspects of
osmoregulation:
Maintaining vol. and composition of body fluids

BODY FLUID
• ICF, Intracellular fluid (intra = inside)
– fluid within cells, accounts for the most body
fluid
• ECF, Extracellular fluid (extra = outside; inter
= between)
– Fluid outside the cells, includes interstitial fluid,
lymph and blood plasma
– Interstitial fluid forms from blood plasma and
bathes all the cells
• Electrolytes
 Body fluids
• ECF differs, depending on where it
occurs in the body
– within blood vessel, blood plasma
– within lymphatic vessels, lymph
– In and around the brain and spinal cord,
cerebrospinal fluid
– In joints, synovial fluid
– Of the eyes, aqueous humor and
vitreous body
Metabolic waste products:

Water, CO2 and nitrogenous

wastes
 Proteins Nucleic acids

Amino acids Nitrogenous bases

–NH2
Amino groups

Many reptiles
Most aquatic Mammals, most (including
animals, including
amphibians, sharks,birds), insects,
most bony fishessome bony fishes
land snails
O
H
C
HN C N
NH2 C O
O C C C N
NH3 O N
NH2 H H
Ammonia Urea Uric acid
Ammonia, a result of deamination of amino
acids
• Ammonia (very toxic, soluble)
– Ammonia is excreted directly by most aquatic
animals,
– Easily permeates membrane since molecules
are small and very water soluble
– In soft-bodied invertebrates, ammonia just
diffuses out.
– In freshwater fishes, it is excreted as
ammonium ions (NH4+) across gill epithelium
– Very toxic, excreted in very dilute solutions
– In mammals, converted into a less toxic form
 Urea is excreted by amphibians and
mammals
• Urea (less toxic, soluble)
– Excreted by mammals and most adult
amphibians
– produce in liver by urea cycle combining
ammonia with CO2. It is transported to kidneys
via the circulatory system.
– Amphibians that undergo metamorphosis and
move as adults to land, switch from excreting
ammonia to excreting urea
– Can be much more concentrated since it is
much less toxic than ammonia; reduces water
loss for terrestrial animals
– Advantage!! Can accumulate in higher conc.
without causing tissue damage
– Disadvantage!! Animals must expend energy
Uric acid forms crystals and is excreted
in a relatively
dehydrated form
• Uric acid (less toxic, insoluble in water)
– Produced from ammonia and break down of
nucleotides from nucleic acid
– Insects, land snails, reptiles, birds
– excreted as semisolid paste (conserves water
>advantage for animals with little access to
water)
– Disadvantage!! Uric acid is even more
energetically expensive to produce than urea,
require more ATP to produce/synthesis uric
acid from ammonia.
 Amino acids Nucleic
acids

Deaminati
on As animal move to
the land, natural
Ammoni Keto Purine
a acids s selection will
favour the
evolution of
Urea
cycl 15 structure and
e steps processes that
The
oxidized conserve water
Ammoni U Uric purine
a rea acid structure
Uric acid and urea
represent different
adaptations for
More energy needed to excreting
produce
More water needed to nitrogenous wastes
Fig. 47-1, p. 1013
 Animals living on land
Their environment is arid,
and they face the threat of
Adaptations: drying up.
waxy cuticle in plants,
waxy layers of insect exoskeletons,
shells of land snails
To conserve water, birds and
mammals excrete very small
volumes of concentrated urine,
but HOW?
 Adrenal
gland
Right Left renal
kidney artery
Right renal
vein
Left
kidney

Right and
left ureters
Urinary
bladder

Urethr
a

Fig. 47-7, p. 1017

The Kidney structure
 Renal pyramids
(medulla)

Capsul
e
Renal
cortex
Renal
medulla

Renal
artery

Renal
vein
Renal
pelvis
Uret
er
Internal structure of the kidney.
Fig. 47-8a, p. 1018
 Kidney Structure
• Renal cortex
– outer portion
• Renal medulla
– inner portion
– contains 8 to 10 renal pyramids
• Renal pyramids
– cone-shaped structures
– tip of each pyramid is a renal
papilla
• Urine flows into collecting ducts
– which empty through a renal papilla into
the renal pelvis (funnel-shaped
chamber)

• Collecting ducts> renal papilla>

renal pelvis> ureter> urinary bladder
> urethra

• Nephrons
– functional units of kidney
 Learning Objective

• Describe (or label on a diagram)

the structures of a nephron
(including associated blood
vessels)
• Give the functions of each
structure
The nephron is the functional unit of the
kidney
• Each kidney
– > 1 million functional units, called
nephrons
Renal
• Nephron structure corpuscle OR
– A cluster of capillaries, glomerulus
Malpighian
– A cup-like Bowman’s capsule body
– Long, coiled renal tubule (proximal
convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle and
distal convoluted tubule)
Glomerulus (Sing.), Glomeruli (pl.)
– Collecting duct
 Proximal
tubule
Bowman's
capsule
Glomerul
us
Efferent
arteriole
Afferent
arteriole
Peritubul
ar Fluid
capillarie from
Distal
s several
tubule
nephron
s flow
into
From To Collectin
renal renal To
g duct
arter vein Loop of renal
y Henle pelvi
) Location and basic structure of a nephron s
Fig. 47-9a, p. 1019
 2 types of Nephrons
• Cortical nephrons (numerous, ~85%)
– located mostly within renal cortex
– have small glomeruli, short loops of
Henle, confined to the renal cortex
• Juxtamedullary nephrons (~15%)
– extend deep into medulla
– have large glomeruli and long loops of
Henle, reach deep into the medulla
– important in concentrating urine
Excretion of urine that is
hypertonic to body fluids, an
 Juxtamedulla Distal
Originate Cortical
ry nephron convoluted Short loop
closer to nephron
tubule of Henle
medulla,
long loop Capsul
of Henle e
Proximal
convoluted
Renal tubule
Glomerul
cortex
us
Bowman’s
capsule
Artery and
vein
Loop of
Henle
Renal
medulla Collecting
duct

Papill
a
uxtamedullary and cortical nephrons.
Fig. 47-8b, p. 1018
 Blood supply to nephron
• Blood route, to kidney
– Renal artery> small branches of renal artery,
afferent arterioles > cluster of capillaries (1st),
glomerulus > efferent arteriole > (2nd capillary
network) peritubular capillaries, surround renal
tubule (proximal and distal)

– Peritubular capillaries unite to form small veins,

Leaves kidney through renal vein
– Vasa recta: Long, straight capillaries extend from
the efferent arterioles of the juxtamedullary
nephrons, capillaries that serve the loop of
Henle, conveying blood in opposite directions,
Juxta- Cortical Blood route, to kidney
medullary
nephron Afferent
nephron
arteriole
from renal
Glomerulus
artery
Renal Bowman’s capsule
cortex Proximal tubule
Peritubula
capillaries

Collecting
SEM
duct 20 µm
Efferent Distal
Renal
arteriole from tubule
To medulla
glomerulus
renal
pelvis Branch of Collecting
renal vein duct
Descending
Loop
limb
of Ascending
Henlelimb
Vasa
(c) (d) Filtrate and recta
Nephron blood flow
“Countercurren
t exchange”
 How does the kidney
regulate body fluids??
THREE PROCESSES:
FILTRATION
REABSORPTION
SECRETION
• Key functions of most excretory
systems are
– Filtration, pressure-filtering of body fluids
producing a filtrate
– Reabsorption, reclaiming valuable
solutes from the filtrate
– Secretion, addition of toxins and other
solutes from the body fluids to the filtrate
– Excretion, the filtrate leaves the system
 REABSORPTION
AND SECRETION
Proximal
tubule
FILTRATION

Bowman's
capsule
Glomerulu
s

REABSORPTION REABSORPTION OF
AND SECRETION H2O; URINE
CONCENTRATED
Distal
tubule Collecting
duct

Renal Capillarie
artery
Renal s
To renal
vein pelvis
Loop of
Fig. 47-10, p. 1020
 FILTRATION: Blood is filtered from the
glomerulus
• Blood flows through the glomerular capillaries
(glomerulus) under high pressure,
• Blood plasma forced out of the capillaries into
Bowman’s capsule
• Fluid within Bowman’s capsule
– Is simply a filtrate of blood plasma
– Fluid that is obtained from blood if it were strained
through a porous filter (porous walls of the glomerular
capillary)
• Process is called ultrafiltration---Require high
pressure, high permeability to achieve glomerular
The afferent arteriole
filtration—Fluid is larger
force through the wallsin diameter
---HOW to
than thethis??
achieve narrow efferent arteriole ----
provides a high rate of blood flow into the
glomerulus, but a high resistance to blood
 Podocytes
• The cells of the surface of the
Bowman’s capsule in contact with the
glomerulus are permeable podocytes
(specialized epithelial cells)
• Podocytes
– Have numerous cytoplasmic extensions,
foot processes (pedicel)
– Cover the surfaces of the glomerular
capillaries
 Blood cells restricted
from passing through Endothelial cell
Capillary of capillary
Red blood
pores
cell
Nucleu
s

Podocyt
e
Filtratio
n slits

Foot
processesFig. 47-11b, p. 1021
 Filtration membrane
• Filtration membrane:
– (1) the porous walls of the glomerular
capillaries
– (2) Filtration slits of the podocytes
• Permits fluid and small solutes dissolved
in the plasma,
– Such as glucose, amino acids, sodium,
potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, other salts,
and urea to pass through
Filtration
– BUT holds backisblood
not cells,
selective with
platelets and
plasma proteins.
regard to ions and small
molecules
• Cells lining the renal tubule
– Simple epithelial cells
– Abundant microvilli
– Contain numerous mitochondria, energy
for active transport materials
 The three barriers
• Fluid that filters from the blood into
the lumen of the nephron must pass
through three potential barriers
(1) The capillary endotheliums
(2) The basement membrane
associated with the capillary
(3) the epithelial cell layer making up
Bowman’s capsule
 Qs
• What is the name of the fluid in
Bowman’s capsule?

• What is the name of the fluid at the

end of the collecting duct?
What are the factors
contribute to the
ultrafiltration?
High pressure, high permeability
ensure glomerular filtration
• The hydrostatic blood pressure in
the glomerular capillaries is
abnormally high
• Large surface area for filtration
provided by the highly coiled
glomerular capillaries
• Great permeability of glomerular
capillaries, numerous small pores
between the endothelial cells
The journey on how filtrate
become urine
 Proximal tubule
• Cells of the transport epithelium
– Controlled secretion of H+, maintain a relatively
constant pH in body fluids
– Synthesize and secrete ammonia, which
neutralizes the acid
• Reabsorb
– Buffer bicarbonate (HCO3-), glucose, amino acids
and potassium (K+), removed into peritubular
capillaries
– Most of the NaCl (salt) and water into interstitial
fluid, transfer of +ve charge is balanced by the
passive diffusion of Cl-, water > osmosis
 1
Proximal tubule 4Distal tubule
NaCl Nutrients H 2O
HCO3− H2O K+ NaCl HCO3−

H+ NH3 K+ H+

CORTEX
2Descending limb Thick segment
3
Filtrate of loop of of ascending
H2O Henle limb
Salts (NaCl and others)
NaCl
HCO3–
H 2O
H+ OUTER NaCl
Urea MEDULLA
Glucose; amino acids
Some drugs 3Thin segment 5Collecting
of ascending duct
limb
Key Urea
Active NaCl H 2O
transport
Passive transport INNER
MEDULLA
Descending limb of the loop of
Henle
• Epithelium is freely permeable to
water , BUT not permeable to sodium
and urea
• The interstitial fluid has a high conc.
of Na+, water moves out from the
filtrate by osmosis
– This process concentrates the filtrate
insides the loop of Henle
• Highly conc. Sodium chloride in the
interstitial fluid of the medulla=
 Ascending limb of the loop of
Henle
• Two speacilized regions
(1) a thin segment near the loop tip and
(2) a thick segment adjacent to the distal tubule
• At the turn of the loop of Henle,
– Walls become more permeable to salt, not permeable to
water
• Thin segment
– NaCl became concentrated in the descending limb
– Diffuses out into the interstitial fluid, increases the
osmalarity of the interstitial fluid in medulla
• Thick segment
– Departure of salt from the filtrate continues, epithelium
actively transports NaCl into the interstitial fluid
– By losing salt without giving out water, the filtrate is
progressively diluted
 Distal tubule
• Plays a key role in regulating the K+
and NaCl conc. of body fluids,
– by varying the amounts of the K+
secreted into the filtrate and
– The amount of NaCl reabsorbed from
the filtrate
• Like the proximal tubule
– pH regulation (secretion of H+ and
reabsorption of bicarbonate, HCO3-)
 Collecting duct
• Carries the filtrate through the medulla 
renal pelvis
• Actively reabsorbing NaCl, permeable to
water and urea
• Filtrate becomes increasingly
concentrated as it loses more and more
water by osmosis to the hyperosmotic
interstitial fluid
• Degree of permeability is under hormonal
control
• Final adjustment of urine vol. and conc.
 Tubular transport maximum (Tm)
• Substances useful to the body reabsorbed
– E.g. Glucose, a.a., solutes

• Maximum amount/rate of a substance that

can be reabsorbed per unit time
– Transport maximum (Tm)
– Bonding sites are saturated on the membrane
proteins
– Person with diabetes mellitus, the conc. of
glucose on the blood exceeds its Tm
– The excess glucose cannot be reabsorbed,
excreted in the urine
Solute gradients and
water conservation
 Solute gradients and water
conservation
• Filtrate passing from Bowman’s capsule to
the proximal tubule has an osmolarity of
about 300 mosm/L, SAME as blood,
seawater has an osmolarity of 1000
mosm/L
• Proximal tubule: large amount of water
and salt is reabsorbed
– The vol. of filtrate decreases substantially, but
because of the salt loss, its osmolarity is the
same
• Filtrate flows from cortex to medulla,
descending limb of the loop of Henle,
water move out, osmosis
mosm/L=
– Solutes milliosmoles
and NaCl per liter
more concentrated
 Solute gradients and water
conservation
• Ascending limb, permeable to salt
but not to water
• As the descending limb produces a
progressively saltier filtrate,
– NaCl diffuses from the ascending limb
– maintain a high osmolarity in the
interstitial fluid of renal medulla
 Bowman's capsule Distal tubule
Afferent Proximal tubule
arteriole
300 300 100 100
200
Efferent CORTEX
arteriole 300 100 300 300
Filtrate MEDULLA

400 200 400 400

600 400 600 600

600 Collecting
Interstitial duct
fluid

1200 1200 1200

Loop of Henle

Fig. 47-13, p. 1023

 Bowman's Distal
Afferencapsule Proximal tubule
t
tubule
arteriol
e
Efferent CORTEX
N H2 O H2 O
arteriole
Filtrat aCl MEDULLA
NaCl
e
NaCl Collectin
H2 O N g duct
aCl H2O
H2 O NaCl
U
Descendin rea
g limb Ascendin
g limb
Loop of
Henle
Fig. 47-12, p. 1022
Hormones regulate kidney
function
Kidney function is regulated by hormones,
ADH
• Urine vol. is regulated by the hormone,
antidiuretic hormone (ADH), ADH increases water
reabsorption
• ADH produced in the hypothalamus, stored and
secreted by the posterior pituitary, targets the
distal tubules and collecting ducts, making them
more permeable to water, resulting in a >
concentrated urine
• Secretion of ADH is stimulated by the
hypothalamus
• Receptors that are stimulated by osmotic
changes cause production of ADH, a thirst
receptor causes increased fluid intake
• Diabetes insipidus
– caused by lack of ADH and excrete a great vol. of urine
 1. Fluid intake is Receptors in the
low. hypothalamus

2. Blood volume
decreases, and Posterior pituitary
osmotic pressure
increases.
6. Blood volume 7. ADH secretion 3. Posterior pituitary
increases, and osmotic is inhibited. secretes ADH.
pressure decreases. Collecting duct
Nephron

H2O H2O H2O

H2O Kidney
H2O
5. Water reabsorption H2O
increases.
4. Collecting ducts
become more
Lower permeable.
urine
volume
Fig. 47-14, p. 1024
Kidney function is regulated by hormones,
Aldosterone
• Aldosterone-produced by the adrenal
cortex
• stimulates the distal convoluted tubules
and collecting ducts to increase sodium
reabsorption
• Aldosterone secretion is stimulated by a
decrease in blood pressure
– causing the cells of the juxtaglomerular
apparatus to produce renin, which activates
the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway
• Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is produced
by the walls of the atria of the heart, and
inhibits aldosterone secretion and renin
 SO,
(1) ADH increases water
reabsorption
(2) The renin-angiotensin-
aldosterone pathway
increases sodium
reabsorption
Urine is composed of
water, nitrogenous wastes and
salts
• Healthy urine is sterile, used to wash
battlefield wounds when clean water
was not available
• Exposed to bacteria, urea rapidly
decomposes to form ammonia
• Urinalysis (diagnostic tool): physical,
chemical, and microscopic
examination of urine, drug testing
How do the kidneys
regulate pH?
• Regulation of pH is governed by
hydrogencarbonate mechanism
• CO2 diffuse from blood into cells of
the distal tubules---combines with
water---produce carbonic acid---
easily dissociates to form hydrogen
ions and bicarbonate ions
• When blood too acidic, >H+ ions are
secreted into the urine +
CO2 + H2O ↔ H2CO3 ↔ H + HCO3-
Recall the
nephron unit:
A: Renal arteriole
B: Afferent arteriole
C: Efferent arteriole
D: Bowman's
Capsule
E: Glomerulus
F: Proximal Tubule
G: Loop of Henle
H: Distal Tubule
I: Collecting Tubule
Learning objective

Compare osmoconformers
and osmoregulators
 How do animals regulate
their water intake in different
environment??
Freshwater, marine and
terrestrial
Osmoconformers and Osmoregulators

• Osmoconformers (marine
invertebrates)
– Internal osmotic conc. is the same
as the surrounding env.
– Do not need to expend much
energy in regulating the osmolarity
of their body fluids
• Osmoregulators
 Osmoregulation and
excretion in
vertebrates
What is the main
osmoregulatory and excretory
organ in vertebrates??
• KIDNEY
– Excrete nitrogenous wastes
– Maintain fluid balance, HOW?
– By adjusting the salt and water content
of the urine

• Skin, lungs or gills, and digestive

system also helps…………
 Animals living in fresh water are
continuously challenged with water
balance problems.
Their plasma has a high solute
concentration (osmolarity)
and tends to draw water by osmosis
CHALLENGES from its surroundings---hyperosmotic to
their environment
> Subject to swelling by movement of
water into their bodies owning to the
osmotic gradient
> Subject to the
Howcontinual
do they loss of body
cope??
salts to the surrounding env.
By excreting large
• Freshwater fishes
– Salt conc. of the body fluids is higher
than the surroundings
– Hypertonic to the watery environment
(DANGER!! Water moves into body,
waterlogged, oh dear!)
– Adaptation: Freshwater fishes covered
with scales and a mucous secretion,
retard the passage of water into the
body
– BUT, water constantly enters through
the mouth and gills (along with food).
Freshwater Fishes
• Challenges?
– Constantly take in water
from their hypoosmotic
environment
– Lose salts by diffusion
• HOW? maintain water
balance
– excrete large volume of hypotonic,
dilute urine
• Salts lost by diffusion
– Are replaced by foods and
• Marine fishes
– Hypo-osmotic to the surrounding, lose water
osmotically and take in salts
– Gills dispose of sodium chloride, specialized
chloride cells, actively chloride ion (Cl-) out,
sodium ions (Na+) follow passively)
– Compensate for fluid loss, drink sea water
– Very small or no glomeruli, very little urine
 SHARKS DON’T
DRINK
SEAWATER!!

• Marine cartilaginous fishes (chondrichthyans)

– Internal salt conc. <of the seawater, SO salt diffuse out
– Marine sharks do not experience large , continuous osmotic
water loss.
– Osmoregulatory strategy?
– Have high concentrations of urea , body fluids slightly
hypertonic to sea water, net inflow of water
– Tissues are adapted to high concentrated urea (accumulated
and stored in the body), trimethylamine oxide (TMAO):
protects proteins from damage by urea.
Animals that live in temporary
waters?

The incredible water bears!!

OR tardigrades
Is a tiny invertebrate
 100 µm

100 µm

(b) Dehydrated
a) Hydrated tardigrade
tardigrade

Hydrate state: 85% water by weight

Adaptation: Anhydrobiosis
Allows organisms to survive dried up by replacing
water with a sugar solution, trehalose (water that
associated membranes and proteins) which keeps
cells in a state of suspended animation until
 Animals living in harsh
heat environments, e.g.
desert
• Kangaroo rats
– Rodents, hopping around
on their hind legs, long
tufted tail.
– Their body's ability to
generate water, 10% from
the seeds and vegetation
they eat
– Recover 90% loss using
metabolic water, derived
from cellular oxidation
– They never have to drink
liquid water their entire
lives!
• Camels
– The fur of the camel,
reduce sweating
Blood water homeostasis
(Osmoregulation)

Homeostasis of blood volume and

osmolarity
 Blood water homeostasis
(Osmoregulation)
• The water potential of the blood must be
regulated to prevent loss or gain of water
from cells.
• Osmoregulation
– Regulates solute concentrations and balances
the gain and loss of water
• Osmoregulation is based largely on
controlled movement of solutes
– Between internal fluids and the external
environment
• Blood water homeostasis (osmoregulation)
is controlled by hypothalamus, which
 1 Osmoreceptors
in hypothalamus Thirst
Hypothalamus

Drinking reduces
blood osmolarity When body
to set point
ADH
Increased
becomes
permeability dehydrated,
Pituitary
gland
the osmotic [ c ]
Distal
OR Osmotic
tubule pressure of the
blood ↑
H2O reabsorption
STIMULUS: helps prevent further Posterior lobe of
The release of ADH is
triggered when osmo-
osmolarity
increase
the pituitary
receptor cells in the
Collecting duct
glandADH
Figure 44.16a:
hypothalamus detect an Antidiuretic hormone
increase in the osmolarity
of the blood
(ADH) enhances fluid
retention by making the
kidneys reclaim more
Homeostasis: water
Blood osmolarity
 Low blood water potential
(too little water)
• Hypothalamus controls the sensation of thirst and
it also secretes the hormone ADH (antidiuretic
hormone; a.k.a vasopressin).
• ADH is stored in pituitary gland,
– and its target cells are the distal tubules and collecting
ducts of the kidney nephrons.

• ADH increases the permeability of the epithelium

to water.
• Increased water reabsorption, reduces urine
volume.
 Low blood water potential
(too little water, high osmotic
concentration)

• Osmolarity of the blood subside,

– reduces the activity of osmoreceptor cells
in the hypothalamus
– and less ADH is secreted
What happen when low
osmotic pressure
detected?
 Homeostasis:
Blood pressure,
Increased Na+
volume
and H2O
reabsorption in
distal tubules
STIMULUS:
The juxtaglomerular
apparatus (JGA) responds
Aldosterone to low blood volume or
blood pressure (such as due
to dehydration or loss of
Arteriole
blood)
constriction
Adrenal gland

Angiotensin II
Distal
tubule

Angiotensinogen
JGA
In response to
Renin
production low blood
pressure OR
Renin
blood vol.,
(b) The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) leads to
Figure 44.16b an increase in blood volume and pressure. READ pg 936
 Increase retention
Aldosteroneof Na+ by the
kidneys, greater
fluid retention,
increases blood
vol.
Renin
Angiotensinoge Angiotensin II
n (plasma Vasoconstriction,
protein) increase blood
pressure
 High blood water potential
(low osmotic concentration) > low blood
pressure
• A second regulatory mechanism involves
juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA), located
near the afferent arteriole that supplies
blood to the glomerulus.

• When the blood pressure/blood volume in

the afferent arteriole drops, enzyme renin
initiates the conversion of angiotensinogen
(a plasma protein) to angiotensin II (a
peptide).
 High blood water potential
(low osmotic concentration) > low blood
pressure
• Angiotensin II
– raises blood pressure by constricting arterioles,
decreasing blood flow to many capillaries
(including those in the kidney)
– Stimulates the proximal tubules of the
nephrons to reabsorb more NaCl and water.
– Stimulates the adrenal glands to release
aldosterone (hormone), that acts on the
nephrons distal tubule, reabsorb more sodium
and water

• This reduces the amount of salt and water

excreted in the urine and consequently
raises blood volume and pressure
• The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone
system (RAAS)
– Is part of a complex feedback circuit that
functions in homeostasis
Liver
 Structure of the liver
• Liver: the LARGEST gland in the body.
– Accessory digestive gland
– 60% of the liver---hepatocytes
– The rest---biliary system
– Ability to regenerate itself
– Massive damage, 75% --dysfunction, scar tissue (fibrosed)
known as cirrhosis
• liver has two blood vessels supplying it with blood
– (1) hepatic portal vein (~75% of the blood supply), blood
transport nutrients from intestines,
– (2) arterial blood supplies oxygen, through the hepatic artery
(~25% of the blood supply)
• functions as an exocrine gland, secretes bile
• The pear-shaped gallbladder stores and conc. bile----
release into duodenum
• Hepatocytes absorb nutrients, detoxify and remove
harmful substances from blood
 Anatomical relations between the
exocrine pancreas, liver and gall
bladder
Right
Liver
hepatic
Left
duct
hepatic
duct
Gallbladder Cystic duct

Common bile
Pancreas duct

Sphincter of Pancreatic duct

Oddi
 Portal
triad

Liver lobules
 Nutrient-rich,
Oxygenated blood deoxygenated
from hepatic blood from hepatic
artery portal vein

Liver
sinusoids

Central vein

Hepatic vein

Vena cava
 Liver: Four basic functions

• Regulation, Synthesis, and

Secretion
• Storage
• Purification, Transformation, and
Clearance
• Fighting infections
(1) Regulation, Synthesis, and
Secretion
• Hepatocytes
– take up glucose, minerals and vitamins
from the blood and store them
– produce important substances needed
by the body,
• such as blood clotting factors, transporter
proteins, cholesterol, and bile components
– regulating blood levels of substances
such as cholesterol and glucose,
maintain body homeostasis 
• Glucose
– STORAGE SITE: A role in the homeostatic
control of blood glucose, by storing or releasing
in response to the pancreatic hormones insulin
and glucagon

• Proteins
– Most blood proteins (except antibodies) are
synthesized and secreted by the liver, e.g.
albumin, proteins responsible for blood
clotting, clotting factors
– Decreased amounts of serum albumin
>>oedema (swelling due to fluid accumulation
in the tissues.)
• Bile
– a greenish fluid synthesized by
hepatocytes
–

– secreted into the bile duct; stored in the

gallbladder, emptied into the
duodenum.
– Bile is both excretory and secretory
– BILE: bile salts, cholesterol,
phospholipids, and bilirubin (from the
breakdown of haemoglobin).
– Bile salts act as "detergents" that aid in
the digestion and absorption of dietary
fats
•Lipids
– Cholesterol, essential component of cell
membranes
– circulates in the body to be used or
excreted into bile for removal
– Increased cholesterol conc. in bile ---
lead to gallstone formation,
crystallization of cholesterol
– synthesizes lipoproteins, circulate in the
blood and shuttle cholesterol and fatty
acids between the liver and body
tissues.
 (2) Storage
• Stores glucose in the form of
glycogen,
• fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K),
• Vitamins B6, and B12, and
• minerals such as copper and iron.
However, EXCESSIVE accumulation of
certain substances can be harmful !!
 (3) Purification, Transformation, and
Clearance
Removes harmful substances from the blood---
HOW?
>Breaks them down into less harmful compounds
>Converts most hormones and drugs  less active
• Ammonia
products.
• Bilirubin
• Hormones
• Drugs
• Toxins
• Ammonia
– Liver converts ammonia > urea--
excreted in urine by the kidneys.
Process is called deamination
– convert one amino-acid into a keto acid
to form a different amino acid (NOT
‘essential’ amino-acids), a process
called transamination ( ‘citruline-
ornithine pathway’)
– In adult humans only 11 of 20 amino
acids can be made by transamination.
• Bilirubin
– a yellow pigment formed, a breakdown
product of RBC haemoglobin
– The spleen, destroys old red cells,
releases bilirubin into the blood, where it
circulates to the liver which excretes it
in bile.
– Excess bilirubin results in jaundice, a
yellow pigmentation of the skin and
eyes
• Hormones
– A role in hormonal modification and
inactivation, e.g. the steroids
testosterone and oestrogen are
inactivated by the liver.

– Men with cirrhosis (chronic inflammation

of the liver, results from chronic
alcoholism or severe chronic hepatitis),
---especially those who abuse alcohol, --
have increased circulating oestrogen, --
may lead to body feminization.
• Drugs

– Nearly all drugs are modified or

degraded in the liver
– oral drugs are absorbed by the gut and
transported to the liver, where they may
be modified or inactivated before they
enter the blood.
– Alcohol, broken down by the liver, and
long-term exposure to its end-products
--lead to cirrhosis.
• Toxins.
– The liver is generally responsible for
detoxifying chemical agents and
poisons.
 (4) Fighting infections

The liver contains

macrophages
(known as Kuppfer
cells),
which destroy any
bacteria that they
come into contact
with
 Liver disease
• Most liver disease is symptomless and
when there are symptoms they are often
vague.
– Jaundice (a yellow discoloration of the skin and
the whites of the eyes).
– Hepatitis (cause by virus)
• Hepatitis A, spread by food and drinking water
• Hepatitis B, spread by blood-to-blood contact and
also sexually
• Hepatitis C, by blood borne
– Cholestasis (reduction or stoppage of bile flow)
– Cirrhosis (results from infection with hepatitis B
and C, alcohol misuse)
– Liver enlargement, portal hypertension
(abnormally high blood pressure in the veins
that bring blood from the intestine to the liver)
– Gall bladder disease (gallstone)
– Paracetamol poisoning
 Liver disease

• Liver cancer
– Primary cancer (cancer that starts in the
liver)
– Secondary cancer /Metastatic cancer
(cancer that has spread from another
part of the body)
END OF LECTURE