Lecture 2

The Development of Structuralist Semantics

Basic Concepts

The central thesis is that every language is a unique relational structure and that the units of the system which are identified derive both their essence and their existence from the relationships with other units in the system. One cannot first identify the units and then, subsequently, at a later stage inquire what combinatorial or other relations hold between them; we simultaneously identify the units and their inter-relations. Linguistic units are but points in a system ( a network of relation), they are terminals of linguistic relations, and have no position and independent existence. Structuralism adopts the position of a semiotic monism, starting from the following postulates: a. all linguistic units are signs (= are amenable to the same kind of analysis) b. all linguistic levels are homogeneous their units may be identified by the same method or methods, such as the commutation test; a central test, since it related the signifier and the signified.
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a. Homonymy (1) mi trebuie un toc I need a heel/doorcase/pen

b. Lexical gaps c. Incongruity of lexical boundaries (2) The cat is on the mat

Is it a door mat that is being referred to (Fr paillasson) or a bedside mat (Fr descente de lit) or a small rug (Fr. tapis). There is a series of lexemes in English: mat, rug, carpet and a series of lexemes in French, tapis, pailleson, carpette, descente de lit and none of the French words has the same denotation as any one of the English lexemes. 3

Bourbaki: We can now clarify what is to be understood by mathematical structure. The feature common to the various notions ranged under this generic heading is that they all apply to sets of elements, the nature of which is not specified; in order to define a structure, one or more relations involving these elements may be taken into consideration (it may then be postulated that this or these relations fulfill certain conditions, to be enumerated), relations which are the axioms of the structure envisaged. To develop the axiomatic theory of a given structure is to deduce all the logical consequences of its axioms, forbidding oneself any other hypotheses concerning the elements under consideration, and especially any hypotheses with regard to their particular nature.
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(3)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------structure sovereignty war fertility mythology Jupiter Mars Quirinus ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------social order oratores bellatores laboratores ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

The Substance-Form Dichotomy

(4) Language = Expression Content

(5)
Substance (conceptual substance)

Content
Form (lexical concepts, syntax) Language Form (phonology) Expression Substance (phonetics)
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Sign function

Motivation of Meaning
Transparent and opaque words Whats in a name: That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet.
The distinction between opaque and transparent words is not absolute. It is customary to distinguish between absolute and relative motivation
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Absolute motivation a) Primary onomatopoeia is defined as the imitation of (natural) sound by sound; the referent itself is or implies an acoustic experience which is more or less closely imitated by the structure of the word (signifier)

(6) buzz, crack, fizz, hum, flop, flap, plop, roar, squeak, squeal, gong, hoot, clank, coo, mioow
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Absolute motivation
b) Secondary onomatopoeia There is a system of initial and final root forming morphemes, of vague signification which thus endow the words which they form with particular symbolic connotation: Bloomfield has paid particular attention to the cluster SN- which would have the following connotations: (7)

breath noise quick separation or movement creeping

sniff, snuff, snore, snort snap, snatch sneak, snail, snoop, snake

The cluster SL- /GL or some vowels (EI) may connote movement or some rural quality, generally unfavorable (i) slink (a se strecura), slither (aluneca), slouch ( move lazily), squirm (moving by twisting the body slimy, slattern, slut, slob (ii) glow, glimmer, gleam, glitter, glare (iii) coon, goofy, loony, drool, moon around, noodle (fig.) 9

Remark Sounds are not expressive in themselves. Onomatopoeia will arise only when the expressive potentialities latent in a given sound are brought to life by contact with a congenial meaning. This can best be seen by contrasting certain pairs of homonyms, one of which is onomatopoeic, while the other is not.

(8)the pealing of a bell the tolling of a bell a ring at the door

the peeling of a potato the toll paid on a road a ring on ones finger
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Relative Motivation a. Morphologic motivation A word is morphologically motivated when it is not atomic, or it is otherwise formally related to another word so that it is analyzable by WFR, illustrating any major or minor WFR.(See discussion of word formation in future lectures)

(9)

understand undersign doc

under+stand under+sign doctor

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b. Semantic motivation One meaning of a word may be related to another cognitively basic meaning of the same word. Metaphoric/ metonymic shifts often motivate polysemous words (10) potatoes cooked in their jacket (metaphor) a coat of paint c. Mixed motivation Morphological and semantic motivation more often than not occur together, this is mixed motivation (the compositional analysis of words), but they are in principle independent. (11)mixed motivation morphological motivation alone semantic motivation alone blackbird, writer conceive, confer, deceive, conception, undergo leg of a table
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Motivated words evince different degrees of semantic transparency, from fully transparent to fully opaque: (12)fully transparent non-smoker, illegal degree of opacity partly transparent blackbird (two semantic indicators) blakboard ladybug (buburuz) one semantic indicator partly opaque cranberry (afina) gooseberry fully opaque red herring brown study undergo
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(13) Its a dormouse Its a mouse Its a bilberry Its a berry

hrciog afin

(14) black in black bird. (female blackbirds are brown) blue in blue-bull (antilopa indian) red in red wine (Compare: red dress)

(15) fish and chips

chips and fish

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An idiom is an expression whose meaning cannot be inferred from the meaning of its parts: to pulls someone leg, to cook someones goose, to be off ones rocker, round the bend of the creak. An idiom is lexically complex but may count as one semantic unit: to kick off the bucket = to die. Idioms may evince syntactic constraints (they may resist word order changes, modification, etc), as a consequence of being apprehended as a unit with semantic and formal internal cohesion. Compare:
(16) Arthur has a chip on his shoulder, apparently. (figurative, literal) Arthur has a chip, apparently, on his shoulder. (literal)
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Degrees of Motivation
(17) Compounds German Finger-hut Wasserleitung Nilpferd Formenlehre Bedeutungslehre (18) English thimble aqueduct hippopotamus morphology semantics French d aquduc hyppopotame morphologie smantique

Derivatives Ursache (original matter) German Gezetz gezetzlich Kirche kirchlich Bischof bischflich Mund mndlich

cause

cause French loi lgal glise ecclsiastique vque piscopale bouche oral
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(19)

English law legal church ecclesiastical bishop episcopal mouth oral

Value La valeur du mot rsulte seulement de la coexistence des diffrents termes. La valeur dun mot ne sera jamais dtermine que par les concours des termes coexistants qui le limitent. Ce qui est dans le mot nest jamais determine que par le concours de ce qui existent autours de lui, associtivement (paradigmatiquement) ou syntagmatiquement.

Compare: F: cher, G: lieb, teur, E: dear, expensive, R: drag, scump

Reflected meaning (20) Queen Elizabeth is immensely intellectual, suffering and tyrannical
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Value Collocative meaning (21) a. pretty girl/woman/flower/*boy b. handsome man/boy/car/vessel/woman (22) fine weather, torrential rain, light drizzle, high winds, rough sea, addled eggs, rancid butter (23) adverbially used adjectives: heavy smoker/ drinker/ sleeper/*breather link verbs: grow dark/ tall/ mad/rich go mad/ *tall/ *rich/??dark (24) bound collocations foot the bill curry favor with pay heed
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(25) Languages

Expression Content fall autumn horse gee-gee

(26) the dead man the deceased man (27) Expression Content Content / dji:dji:/
HORSE

denotative content connotative content

BABY-TALK
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(39)

Higher
Literary academic technical central or Neutral word lower Slang colloquialism
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archaism

neologism

Dialectal Variation (40) American English fall truck tap

British English: autumn lorry faucet/spigot

Sociolectal Variation (41) U non-U black-tie dress tux (tuxedo) curtains drapers children kids parents folks my wife Mrs. Smith (42) Blacks, drug-users, motorcycle groups, prisoners and police; medical, scientific or chemical personnel, college students, gays and prostitutes, street-gangs
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Slang (43) Who are you swinging with, man? Why, I am swinging with the Bishops, man Good, man! Were tight with the Bishops How about dropping a dime and well get a bottle of sneaky pete. (standard) What street club do you belong to? I belong to the Bishops. Good. Were friendly with the Bishops How about contributing a dime and well buy a bottle of wine. (Fadiman, 1986, 176) (44) Legalese malicious intent with malice aforethought extenuating circumstances contempt of court

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The secularization of religious terminology a. Pride, Wrath, Envy, Lust, Gluttony, Avarice and Sloth b. sanction, sanctuary, doctrine, propaganda, novice, incumbent, conscientious, office, lobby, asylum, cell, anathema, pittance, lesson, passion, mercy, etc. c. hocus pocus (lat. hoc est corpus, the Eucharist)
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The moralization of status words

High rank terms become positive evaluative (nouns like prince, lady, gentleman, adjectives like noble, princely, gentle, frank (not in serfdom), free (not in bondage), liberal (of the arts and sciences, worthy of a free man, as opposed to servile or mechanical).
Low rank terms become negative evaluative (nouns like churl (serf), knave (a male childpage), villain (low-born, base-minded), blackguard (the lowest menials of a household), vassal , wretch (exile, outcast), slave (Lat. sclavus), etc.
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